1.3: Public Speaking and The Communication Models

Introduction to Communication Models

When we share ideas, solve problems, or simply have a conversation, communication is the way we connect with one another. In public speaking, understanding how communication works helps us become better speakers and listeners. You may have the best ideas in the world, but if you do not possess basic public speaking skills, you’re going to have a problem getting anyone to listen. So, people are more likely to pay attention to what you are saying when you are speaking in a clear and coherent fashion.

To examine this further, scholars have developed models to explain the communication process and the public speaking process. These models will give you a basic understanding of the communication process and show us the steps involved in sending and receiving messages. In addition, they help us understand the challenges that you may face as a speaker or when we try to communicate.

A basic model of human communication is one of the first topics that most communication teachers start with in any class. For our focus on public speaking, we will introduce two widely discussed models in communication: interactional and transactional. 

Interactional Model

The interactional model of communication developed by Wilbur Schramm (Schramm, 1954) builds upon the Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver's linear model. The interactional model builds on the simple idea of sender and receiver by adding feedback. This means that the listener is not just a passive receiver but someone who can respond, making communication a two-way process (West and Turner, 2020).

In the interaction model of public speaking, Schramm added three major components to the Shannon and Weaver model. First, Schramm identified two basic processes of communication: encoding and decoding. Encoding is what the source does when “creating a message, adapting it to the receiver, and transmitting it across some source-selected channel” (Wrench, McCroskey, and Richmond, 2008, p. 17). It is the process of turning thoughts or ideas into words, symbols, or gestures. For example, when a student prepares a class speech, they think about what they want to say and then choose the words, images, and tone that best express their message (West and Turner, 2020).

The second major process is decoding, which involves “sensing (for example, hearing or seeing) a source’s message, interpreting the source’s message, evaluating the source’s message, and responding to the source’s message” (Wrench, McCroskey, and Richmond, 2008, p. 17). Decoding is relevant in the public speaking context when, as an audience member, you listen to the words of the speech, pay attention to nonverbal behaviors of the speaker, and attend to any presentation aids that the speaker uses. In this process of interpreting that message, each listener in the audience uses their own background, experiences, and knowledge to make sense of what the speaker is saying. Misunderstandings can happen if the speaker’s message is unclear or if the audience interprets it differently than intended. You must then interpret what the speaker is saying.

The last part of decoding and third major component is “responding to a source’s message,” often referred to as feedback. Feedback is the message sent back from the receiver to the speaker, helping the speaker understand how the message is being interpreted and whether it was successful. This process allows communication to be adjusted in real time and is a critical component of effective interaction.

Wrench, McCroskey, and Richmond (2008) describe responding as part of the decoding process, where listeners not only sense and interpret a message but also evaluate and respond to it. This response can be verbal, like asking a question, or nonverbal, such as facial expressions, gestures, or eye contact. For example, in a classroom presentation, students may indicate interest and understanding by nodding, smiling, or taking notes or look confused, prompting the speaker to clarify their points.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Interaction Model of Communication. (CC BY-SA 4.0; University of Minnesota via Wikimedia Commons)   Read Fig 1.3.1 long description.

 

As referenced in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\), the interactional model of communication views communication as a two-way process where messages are exchanged between a sender and a receiver. The sender is the person who creates and encodes the message, while the receiver is the person who decodes and interprets it. After the receiver decodes the message and then encodes a message back to the sender, the receiver then becomes sender.  Unlike the linear model, this approach acknowledges that both parties take turns sending and receiving messages, creating a more dynamic exchange. The channel in the above figure refers to the medium used to send the message such as spoken words, text messages, or video calls. Noise includes any interference that can distort or block the message, such as background sounds, poor internet connection, or misunderstanding due to language barriers.

Lastly, feedback in the figure's feedback channel is the receiver’s response to the message and helps the sender know whether the message was understood. Feedback can be immediate, like nodding during a conversation, or delayed, like replying to an email. This means that the listener is not just a passive receiver but someone who can respond, making communication a two-way process (West and Turner, 2020).The interactional model emphasizes that communication is ongoing and influenced by context, such as culture, relationships, and physical setting. By recognizing that both participants affect the communication process, this model highlights the shared responsibility in creating effective understanding. 

Transactional Model

In order to handle situations where multiple sources are interacting at the same time, Dean Barnlund proposed a transactional model of communication (Barnlund, 2008). The transactional model is the most complex and realistic. It views communication as a continuous process where both people are senders and receivers at the same time. In public speaking, the speaker acts as the source when delivering messages to the audience, but during feedback, the roles reverse as the audience becomes the source, and the speaker becomes the receiver. In an interpersonal communication encounter, a face-to-face conversation with a friend includes talking, nodding, reacting, and adjusting your message based on their responses. This transactional communication in action assumes that the meanings of the messages are mutually understood by both senders and receiver based on a concept called the "Field of experience". According to West and Turner, a field of experience involves “how a person’s culture, experiences, and heredity influence his or her ability to communicate with another” (West and Turner, 2010). Effective communication depends on having some shared experiences (culture, education, beliefs, and past experiences) between the speaker and the audience. Without these shared elements, it becomes more difficult to ensure the message is understood as intended. Public speakers must recognize and build upon these shared experiences to connect with their audience and make their message meaningful.

 

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Types of Presentation Aids (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 via Communication transactional model)

As referenced in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\), in public speaking, the source is the person who is giving the speech, the channel is the speaker’s use of verbal and nonverbal communication, and the receivers are the audience members listening to the speech. So, the source encodes the message to the audience members and the audience members as receivers, decode the message and provide feedback depending on the encoded response sent either verbally or nonverbally.  At this point, the audience members or receivers, become the source and the source becomes the receiver.

Dialogic Theory of Public Speaking

The dialogic theory of public speaking sees communication as a two-way, interactive process where meaning is co-created between speaker and audience. Instead of viewing a speech as a one-sided performance, this theory emphasizes that effective public speaking feels like a conversation, even with a large audience (Barge and Little, 2008). Based on the work of numerous philosophers, Ronald Arnett and Pat Arneson proposed that all communication, even public speaking, could be viewed as a dialogue (Arnett and Arneson, 1999). The dialogic theory is based on three overarching principles including dialogue vs monologue, meanings in people, and context/social situations.

First, dialogue is more natural than monologue means that human communication typically happens through dialogue of two or more people interacting naturally. Public speaking becomes more effective when it mimics conversation, even if only one person is speaking. For example, a TED Talk often feels conversational because the speaker uses personal stories, rhetorical questions, and direct address (“you”) to create a sense of interaction with the audience. This approach helps listeners feel included and keeps them engaged.

Second, meanings are in people not words means that words don’t carry meaning by themselves; people interpret words based on their own backgrounds, experiences, and values. For instance, the word “freedom” can mean different things to different people depending on their cultural or personal context. A speaker must consider these differences and define key terms or give examples that relate to the audience’s experiences. This ensures that the intended message is actually understood by the audience.

Last, contexts and social situations impact perceived meanings (Bakhtin, 2001a; Bakhtin, 2001b). Where and how communication takes place greatly affects how a message is received. A joke that works in a casual setting may fall flat in a formal speech. Similarly, a political comment may be accepted or rejected based on the audience’s social norms or current events. For example, a graduation speech during a time of national crisis might need a more serious tone than in a normal year. Effective speakers adapt their message and delivery to the specific context and audience they are addressing.

Understanding dialogic theory helps speakers move beyond simply delivering information as it guides them to connect, adapt, and build mutual meaning with their audience. This approach leads to more ethical, inclusive, and impactful communication.

Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)

• Business Presentation (Interactional Model): During a team meeting, a project manager presents quarterly results using a PowerPoint and verbal explanation. As she speaks, team members nod, ask questions, or take notes.  This feedback helps the speaker adjust her tone and pace. This illustrates the interactional model, where communication flows two ways and audience reactions shape the speaker's delivery.
• Town Hall Meeting (Transactional Model):At a local town hall, a city official discusses upcoming policy changes. Community members interrupt with questions, give applause, or show concern through body language. The official modifies their message in real time, considering the shared field of experience (community concerns, past policies). This ongoing exchange reflects the transactional model, where both speaker and audience act as senders and receivers, shaping meaning together.

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 Key Takeaways

• Effective communication is more than just speaking, it involves encoding your message, considering the audience’s field of experience, and responding to their feedback in real time.
• The interactional model helps us understand basic communication as a two-way process, while the transactional model shows how meaning is co-created through shared experiences and simultaneous roles.
• Dialogic theory emphasizes that public speaking should feel like a dialogue, adapting language and content to the audience’s experiences and the context in which the speech occurs.

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Exercises

• Draw the major models of communication on a piece of paper and then explain how each component is important to public speaking.
• Write a short reflection (150–200 words) on your own personal experiences. Consider how your culture, language, education, or past experiences affect the way you understand and communicate messages. Then, describe how this awareness can help you better connect with an audience that may have a different field of experience. (Optional: Share with a classmate and discuss differences in how you might interpret the same message.)
• Pair up with a classmate. One person will deliver a short 1-minute talk (on any topic such as favorite food, a current event, etc.). The other person will only respond with nonverbal cues (nodding, frowning, eye contact, etc.). Then switch roles. Afterward, discuss: What types of feedback did you notice? How did the feedback affect how you delivered your message? What did this activity teach you about being both a speaker and a listener?

 

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Attribution

• 1.3: The Process of Public Speaking by Anonymous is licensed CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Original source: Public Speaking: Practice and Ethics