11.4: Cannons of Rhetoric and Aristotelian Proofs

Building Persuasive Power: Appeals and Canons

More than 2,000 years ago, thinkers like Aristotle and Cicero laid the foundation for how we understand persuasion today. Their ideas are still powerful because they explain both what makes a message persuasive and how to deliver it effectively.

Aristotle’s Three Appeals

Aristotle argued that persuasion works best when you balance three appeals: ethos, logos, and pathos (Kennedy, 2007).

• Ethos is credibility. Audiences are more likely to listen if they see you as trustworthy, knowledgeable, and ethical. Example: A community college student transferring to a UC can strengthen ethos by citing accurate statistics on transfer rates and sharing their own success story of navigating the transfer process. In the workplace, a young professional might build ethos by showing both expertise in their field and respect for colleagues’ perspectives.
• Logos is logic. This means using clear evidence, strong reasoning, and organized arguments. Example: A student giving a speech on climate change might point to data from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to show the urgency of action. In a professional setting, an employee could use logos to argue that remote work increases productivity by referencing recent workplace studies.
• Pathos is emotion. This appeal connects with values, hopes, and fears. Example: A student might persuade classmates to support food pantry programs by sharing personal stories of peers facing food insecurity. On a global scale, leaders often use pathos when calling for humanitarian aid after natural disasters, appealing to compassion and solidarity.

Cicero’s Five Canons

Cicero expanded on Aristotle’s ideas by developing the five canons of rhetoric, which provide a step-by-step guide for creating and delivering strong messages (Cicero, trans. 2016; Leith, 2012).

1. Invention – Finding your ideas. Example: A student preparing a transfer application speech might brainstorm by asking, “What challenges did I face, and how did I overcome them?” A professional pitching a project could invent ideas by identifying what problem their proposal solves.
2. Arrangement – Organizing your message. Example: When persuading classmates to support more internship opportunities, a student might arrange their speech in a Problem-Cause-Solution format. Globally, activists often arrange speeches by first naming an urgent issue (like rising sea levels), then pointing to causes, and finally suggesting specific solutions.
3. Style – Choosing words and tone. Example: A student encouraging peers to apply for scholarships might use encouraging and hopeful language. In contrast, a CEO addressing climate risk may choose urgent and serious words to match the gravity of the issue.
4. Memory – Knowing your material. Example: Students who memorize key points for a classroom debate appear more confident and adaptable. In professional life, a manager who knows the details of a proposal inside and out can handle tough questions without hesitation.
5. Delivery – Presenting your message. Example: A student transferring to a 4-year university might practice good delivery by using steady eye contact and vocal variety in a scholarship interview. Globally, delivery can determine impact—think about how Greta Thunberg’s passionate tone helped amplify her climate activism across borders.

Why This Still Matters

Aristotle’s appeals and Cicero’s canons give us tools to create speeches that balance credibility, logic, and emotion while being well-structured and impactful. Whether you’re persuading classmates to support a campus initiative, preparing for a career presentation, or discussing global challenges like climate change or social justice, these classical tools remain as relevant today as they were in the past. 2-3 lines added explaining and referencing what the table covers. (Completed - See below):

Table 11.4.1 connects Aristotle’s persuasive appeals (ethos, logos, and pathos) with the five canons of rhetoric: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. It shows how these elements work together in real-life situations such as college speeches, workplace communication, and global advocacy.

Table 11.4.1: Appeals and Canons in Action

Concept	What It Means	Example: Community College & Transfer	Example: Workplace	Example: Global Issue
Ethos (Credibility)	The speaker’s trustworthiness, knowledge, and ethics	A student cites accurate transfer statistics and shares their own transfer journey	An employee highlights past project successes to show expertise	A scientist explains climate data with a strong record of peer-reviewed research
Logos (Logic)	Using evidence, facts, and clear reasoning	A student argues for affordable textbooks by showing average costs and open-source alternatives	A manager presents productivity data to support hybrid work	A UN speaker shares statistics on rising global temperatures
Pathos (Emotion)	Appealing to values, hopes, and emotions	A student shares stories about food insecurity on campus to encourage peers to support the food pantry	A team leader uses inspiring stories to motivate staff during a tough project	An activist appeals to compassion by describing families displaced by floods
Invention	Generating ideas and arguments	Brainstorming reasons why tutoring services should be expanded on campus	Identifying solutions to reduce workplace burnout	Proposing global partnerships to improve access to vaccines
Arrangement	Organizing content effectively	Structuring a speech on housing insecurity as Problem-Cause-Solution	Arranging a pitch by outlining need, benefits, and cost savings	Organizing a global summit speech into causes of deforestation and solutions
Style	Choosing words, tone, and delivery style	Using encouraging language when urging peers to apply for scholarships	Using clear, professional language in a board meeting	Choosing urgent but respectful language in international diplomacy
Memory	Mastery of material so ideas flow naturally	Rehearsing key points before a class presentation	Remembering data points for a client proposal	Speaking confidently about global poverty stats without notes
Delivery	How the message is presented (voice, gestures, visuals)	Using eye contact and a confident voice in a transfer scholarship interview	Using strong visuals and steady pace in a workplace training	Delivering a speech with passion and clarity at a climate march

Key Takeaways

 Ethos, Logos, Pathos

• Ethos = credibility
• Logos = logic and evidence
• Pathos = emotion
  • Example: A student arguing for affordable textbooks could share cost data (logos), explain how they saved money with open resources (ethos), and describe the stress of choosing between books and groceries (pathos).

Five Canons: How to Build a Speech

• Invention = brainstorming ideas
• Arrangement = organizing them
• Style = choosing words and tone
• Memory = knowing your material
• Delivery = presenting with confidence
  • Example: A student applying for transfer could brainstorm key experiences, organize them clearly, practice delivery, and present them with confidence in an interview.

Working Together

• Appeals = what makes the message persuasive
• Canons = how to prepare and deliver it
  • Example: A workplace team pitching a project might use ethos with past success, logos with data, and pathos with employee stories, while organizing and delivering their pitch step by step.

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Exercises 

•  Appeals Swap: One student makes a quick persuasive claim using ethos, and the partner rewrites it using logos or pathos. 
• Delivery Challenge: Each partner delivers the same short pitch twice (once with flat delivery and once with strong eye contact and vocal variety), then give feedback.
• Personal Story Connection: Think of a personal experience that could connect to a larger issue (Example: missing a bus leading to a bigger point about public transit) and write two sentences linking the story to the issue.