6.1: Hope and Optimism
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- Define optimism, hope, and learned optimism, and recognize the differences between them.
- Explore optimistic illusions and biases, and understand their impact on decision-making processes.
- Define hope and its significance in human well-being, including its connection to positive outcomes.
- Differentiate between hope and mere wishing, and understand their respective roles in goal pursuit.
- Learn practical strategies for utilizing hope to pursue goals and navigate obstacles effectively.
Start off this Chapter by reading Chapter 5 of Positive Psychology: The Basics¹ by Rona Hart, which discusses optimism and hope.
Watch Dr. Shane Lopez, a senior scientist at Gallup, discuss hope in this interview² uploaded onto YouTube by UMNCSH.
Next, watch FightMediocrity’s YouTube video animation on Learned Optimism by Martin Seligman³.
Self Assess
Utilize self-assessment tools to measure your levels of hope and optimism. Take the Learned Optimism test from the Authentic Happiness website⁴ under 'Engagement Questionnaires' to assess learned optimism. Additionally, discover your trait optimism by completing the LOT-R⁵. Lastly, evaluate your hope levels using the Adult Hope Scale⁶.
Perception Matters
Optimism prompts us to consider the benefits of looking on the bright side. Optimism means feeling hopeful about the future and believing good things will happen. It's seeing things positively (Oxford)⁷. The traditional understanding of optimism, as presented by Dr. Michael Scheier and Dr. Chuck Carver, describes it as a consistent tendency to anticipate positive outcomes over negative ones. When you have a goal in mind, your expectations about achieving it can either be positive or negative. These expectations are shaped by a combination of genetic factors and early life experiences, including positive interactions and secure attachments formed during childhood.
Researchers, led by Dr. Michael Scheier, examined the impact of optimism on patients, particularly in terms of rehospitalization. Their study involved 309 patients who had undergone bypass surgery, primarily men in their 60s. The findings revealed that optimism served as a predictor for both surgery and rehospitalization related to coronary heart disease (CHD). Additionally, optimism showed significance in relation to depression and neuroticism. When considering all personality factors together and adjusting for sex and cholesterol, optimism emerged as the sole predictor (Scheier et al., 1999)⁸. The study's findings prompted researchers to explore the underlying mechanisms by which optimism contributes to quicker post-surgery recovery in individuals. It seems that believing in the effectiveness of medications and following doctor's advice increases commitment to treatment, boosting chances of recovery. Conversely, doubting treatment efficacy may reduce motivation to adhere to prescribed regimens. Optimists handle stress better, embracing growth and effective coping strategies, leading to resilience in overcoming challenges. They also tend to pursue higher education and excel in their careers.
Dr. Suzanne Segerstrom's research on immunology highlights a concerning trend on optimism. She conducted a study among law students facing the challenges of their demanding coursework. Interestingly, those with remarkably high levels of optimism demonstrate poorer immune system function during exam periods compared to their less optimistic peers. This unexpected finding is attributed to the heightened stress and role conflict experienced by highly optimistic students. Segerstrom suggests that while optimism can typically be advantageous, excessive optimism may have adverse effects, leading to disappointment when hopeful expectations aren't realized and ignoring the reality of future events (Segerstrom, 2001)⁹.
Transitioning from optimism to hope, hope shares similarities with optimism because both involve expecting good things to happen or believing that goals can be reached (Oxford)¹⁰. Defined by Dr. Charles R. Snyder as goal-directed thinking, hope involves pathways thinking, which includes the perceived capacity to identify routes toward desired goals, and agency thinking, involving the motivation to utilize these pathways. Importantly, for hope to be applicable, the goal must hold personal value, regardless of its duration or difficulty. The emotion of hope serves as a guiding beacon, reassuring individuals that they are progressing towards their aspirations.
Intersection of Thought & Action
It's not just about positive thinking; action is essential too. According to Snyder's model, hope involves two key components: pathways thinking and agency thinking. Pathways thinking refers to the ability to identify effective strategies to pursue goals, while agency thinking involves the motivation to use these strategies and persevere in the face of obstacles. In Snyder's view, hope is more than just an emotion; it's a dynamic interaction between these cognitive processes. Emotions serve as indicators of progress toward achieving goals rather than being the primary focus. Snyder also developed measures of hope for both adults and children, as well as a state measure to assess changes in hope over time. This model has been extensively researched worldwide and is distinct from related concepts such as optimism and self-efficacy (Snyder, 2002)¹¹.
How hopeful are you? Discover your level of hopefulness by completing The Trait Hope Scale¹².
Hope provides various benefits, including improved problem-solving abilities, positive self-talk during challenges, increased positive emotions and energy, and a mindset that sees obstacles as conquerable challenges. It is cultivated through learning, strong parental attachment, and the interplay of dopamine-regulated behavioral inhibition system (BIS)/ behavioral activation system (BAS). Benefits of hope include better GPA, increased athletic performance, increased happiness, and social ability (Rand et al., 2020)¹³.
Exploring Learned Optimism
Shifting from the traditional understanding of optimism, let's explore alternative forms such as learned optimism. Recall the theory of learned helplessness from introductory psychology, which was developed by Seligman as a counter model to the animal model of depression, based on the observation of dogs that no longer attempted to escape shock. This theory prompts an exploration into how individuals make attributions, or explanations, for both positive and negative events in their lives. This inquiry leads to the concept of explanatory style, which examines the habitual manner in which individuals interpret and explain the occurrences they encounter.
For a deeper understanding of learned optimism, watch Practical Psychology summarize Learned Optimism¹⁴, a book by positive psychologist, Martin Seligman.
Individuals with high levels of learned optimism tend to respond to negative events in specific ways. For instance, when encountering setbacks like failing a midterm, they are more inclined to make external attributions, such as blaming the professor or acknowledging external factors like a busy schedule impacting their preparation, rather than internalizing the failure. They also tend to view the setback as variable, assuming that the next exam will likely be better, rather than stable, seeing the failure as a permanent aspect of their abilities. Furthermore, they may attribute the failure to specific circumstances, like the unique challenges of a particular class, rather than seeing it as a global reflection of their competence. In contrast, individuals with a pessimistic outlook are more likely to attribute failures internally, seeing themselves as inherently flawed or incapable. They also tend to view failures as stable traits, expecting similar outcomes in the future, and perceive them as global, affecting multiple aspects of their lives beyond just the immediate situation.
The origins of an optimistic explanatory style can be traced to various factors. Firstly, research suggests a genetic component, as evidenced by twin studies¹⁵ indicating a hereditary influence on optimism levels. Additionally, a secure attachment to parents during childhood has been linked to the development of an optimistic outlook later in life. This connection is further reinforced by the theory that parental optimistic explanatory styles, where positive outcomes are emphasized, tend to shape similar attitudes in their children. Conversely, exposure to pessimistic narratives, such as those commonly portrayed in television programs, can instill a sense of helplessness and pessimism, leading to a lower learned optimism in individuals.
It's important to recognize that it's not only one's actual skill but rather their belief in their skill that significantly impacts outcomes. This concept is rooted in perceived control, which refers to the belief that one has the ability to make a difference in the course or the consequences of some event or experience; often helpful in dealing with stressors. By fostering a sense of perceived control, individuals can approach difficulties with greater confidence and resilience, ultimately shaping their responses and outcomes.
In their work in 1977, Dr. Ellen J. Langer and Dr. Judith Rodin investigated the effects of reintroducing control to residents in nursing homes who had experienced learned helplessness. By empowering them to make choices and be mindful of their newfound control—such as selecting movies or caring for a plant—they observed remarkable improvements. Residents showed higher health and activity levels, better mood and sociability, and notably lower mortality rates over an 18-month period (Langer & Rodin, 1977)¹⁶.
Definitions
- Optimism
- feeling hopeful about the future and believing good things will happen
- Pathways Thinking
- Includes the perceived capacity to identify routes toward desired goals
- Agency Thinking
- involving the motivation to pursue goals
- The Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)
- associated with responses to fear and punishment avoidance
- Behavioral Activation System (BAS)
- linked to responses to rewards and approach behavior
- Learned Optimism
- how individuals make attributions, or explanations, for both positive and negative events in their lives
- Learned Helplessness
- belief that one is powerless to do anything about a situation after repeated experiences of adversity
- Perceived Control
- the belief that one has the ability to make a difference in the course or the consequences of some event or experience
Attribution
¹Hart, R. (2020). Positive Psychology: The Basics (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315147857
²UMNCSH. (2013, May 7). Interview with Dr. Shane Lopez [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/Bka3sI5_WZ4?si=-quP_g9vL7PqtD73
³FightMediocrity. (2015, June 19).Learned Optimism by Martin Seligman - Animation [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/2hHNq45rEnU?si=GuHo-Yw2jrZHb8Lj
⁴Questionnaire Center | Authentic Happiness. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/testcenter
⁵Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., & Bridges, M. W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): a reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of personality and social psychology, 67(6), 1063. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.67.6.1063 Accessible at Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R). Department of Psychology, Carnegie Mellon University. https://www.cmu.edu/dietrich/psychology/pdf/scales/LOTR_Scale.pdf
⁶Adult Hope Scale | Positive Psychology Center. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/resources/questionnaires-researchers/adult-hope-scale
⁷optimism, n. Meanings, etymology and more | Oxford English Dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.oed.com/dictionary/optimism_n
⁸Scheier, M. F., Matthews, K. A., Owens, J. F., Schulz, R., Bridges, M. W., Magovern, G. J., Sr, & Carver, C. S. (1999). Optimism and Rehospitalization After Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery. Archives of Internal Medicine, 159(8), 829–835. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.159.8.829
⁹Segerstrom, S. C. (2001). Optimism, Goal Conflict, and Stressor-Related Immune Change. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 24(5), 441–467. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012271410485
¹⁰hope, v. Meanings, etymology and more | Oxford English Dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.oed.com/dictionary/hope_v
¹¹Snyder, C. R. (2002). TARGET ARTICLE: Hope Theory: Rainbows in the Mind. Psychological Inquiry, 13(4), 249–275. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1304_01
¹²Snyder, C. R., Harris, C., Anderson, J. R., Holleran, S. A., Irving, L. M., Sigmon, S. T., et al.(1991). The will and the ways: Development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 570-585. Accessible at The Adult Hope Scale. Positive Psychology Center, University of Pennsylvania. https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/resources/questionnaires-researchers/adult-hope-scale
¹³Rand, K. L., Shanahan, M. L., Fischer, I. C., & Fortney, S. K. (2020). Hope and optimism as predictors of academic performance and subjective well-being in college students. Learning and Individual Differences, 81, 101906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101906
¹⁴Practical Psychology. (2016, April 8). Learned Optimism Positive Psychology - Martin Seligman - Animated Book Review [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/6tN9wMbdqZU?si=-eC0WGM5vG7bljmm
¹⁵Schulman, P., Keith, D., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1993). Is optimism heritable? A study of twins. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31(6), 569–574. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(93)90108-7
¹⁶Rodin, J., & Langer, E. J. (1977). Long-term effects of a control-relevant intervention with the institutionalized aged. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35(12), 897–902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.35.12.897