7.1: Psychological Flourishing with Prosocial Behavior
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- Define prosocial behavior, explore its underlying motivations, and analyze its benefits for individual well-being.
- Implement actionable strategies to integrate more kindness into daily life for enhanced personal fulfillment and societal well-being.
- Understand how acts of kindness are influenced by psychological mechanisms like priming, and their effects on mood and perception.
- Analyze the benefits of giving social support over receiving it, based on empirical studies.
Interacting with Kindness
Explore Dr. Katherine Nelson and colleagues' paper titled Do unto others or treat yourself? The effects of prosocial and self-focused behaviors on psychological flourishing¹, as they discuss the significance of doing nice things for others.
Research highlights the significance of social contact for well-being. From hugs reducing stress to even brief interactions with strangers boosting happiness, the benefits are undeniable. Maintaining a wide network of "weak ties" can also offer valuable connections, advice, and inspiration, enhancing our overall happiness, and fulfillment (Van Lange et al., 2021)².
The widely held societal belief that treating ourselves leads to happiness may not always produce the desired outcomes. In a survey of 632 Americans, their monthly spending on bills, personal gifts, and charity was analyzed. A link was found between higher happiness and spending on others, regardless of income. On a university campus, students given money to spend on themselves or others showed that those who spent on others ended the day happier. Students who were asked to predict what would happen got it completely wrong (Dunn, Aknin & Norton, 2008)³. Another set of studies found that spending money on others resulted in healthier blood pressure levels than those who spent money on themselves (Whillans et al., 2016)⁴.
In longitudinal studies, participants are typically randomly assigned to engage in acts of kindness either for others, for themselves, or as part of a neutral control activity, such as tracking daily routines. Over a period of four weeks, participants carry out three acts of kindness per week according to their assigned condition.Research findings reveal that individuals who perform acts of kindness for others, as opposed to themselves or engaging in neutral activities, experience significant enhancements in positive emotions, mental well-being, and reductions in symptoms of anxiety and depression (Nelson et al., 2016⁵; Nelson-Coffey et al., 2021⁶). Moreover, a study showed that focusing on kindness towards others for four weeks led to notable improvements in immune-related gene expression compared to self-directed kindness or neutral activities, suggesting a positive impact on physical health as well (Nelson-Coffey et al., 2017)⁷.
Recall the last time you performed a good deed. Whether it was assisting someone with a flat tire, tidying up their apartment, aiding in studying for a challenging exam, surprising them with a thoughtful gift, mowing the lawn for an elderly relative, or offering a ride to an important destination despite it being out of your usual route. How did that experience make you feel?
Prosocial behaviors are actions intended towards helping others, driven by a sincere concern for their rights, emotions, and welfare. These behaviors encompass a range of actions, including showing empathy, providing assistance, sharing, comforting, and cooperating with others. Prosocial acts can be proactive, reactive, or altruistic, all of which yield beneficial outcomes for both individuals and communities. Proactive prosocial behaviors involve actions taken for self-benefit. Reactive behaviors respond to individual needs, while altruistic acts are aimed at helping others without expecting personal gain.
Participating in discussion groups and sharing knowledge generates social capital, which constitutes a form of prosocial behavior. Philanthropy, such as donating to charity or establishing charitable organizations, is also considered prosocial. Social capital is essentially the value derived from positive connections among individuals. Examples at the societal level include acts like holding the door for someone, returning lost items to strangers, offering directions, lending items, and any other mutually beneficial interactions between individuals, even if they are unfamiliar with each other. For instance, Wikipedia, as a collaboratively edited encyclopedia, exemplifies how contributions enhance both social and knowledge capital.
Researchers assessed participants' helping behavior through both observation and self-report measures. The observation involved evaluating if individuals stopped to help someone in need following experimental manipulations. Meanwhile, participants completed the Helping Attitude Scale, rating their attitudes towards helping others on a spectrum from skepticism to affirmation. You can access the scale through the provided link⁸.
Societal Impacts of Pro-Social Behaviors
Engaging in prosocial behavior offers numerous benefits, including social support, stress reduction, and mood enhancement. Society would fall apart without it. Prosocial behavior fosters relationships and cultivates stable communities. Its significance amplifies during crises like the COVID pandemic, where its impact extends both to individuals and society at large. Amid financial struggles, isolation, and the grief of losing loved ones, aiding others becomes paramount, serving as a cornerstone for resilience and collective well-being (Haller et al., 2022)⁹.
We engage in these actions not only for our own safety but also for the well-being of others. Consider the mask mandate during the Covid-19 pandemic. Each time you wore a mask or get vaccinated, you're not just safeguarding yourself; you are also practicing prosocial behavior by protecting those you come into contact with. These actions represent social contracts with our communities, demonstrating our commitment to keeping each other and our most vulnerable members healthy. According to Reddinger and colleagues (2022)¹⁰, individuals who exhibit prosocial behaviors are more likely to get vaccinations. For instance, in a study conducted between April and August 2021, participants who contributed the maximum amount ($4) to public welfare were 48% more likely to voluntarily obtain a first dose compared to those who made no contributions.
Prosocial behaviors, such as volunteering, not only benefit others but also have a positive impact on one's health and well-being. For instance, individuals who engage in high levels of volunteering (in two or more organizations) experienced a significant 63% decrease in mortality compared to nonvolunteers, even after adjusting for age and sex. Further analysis revealed that this reduced mortality risk was partially attributed to factors like improved physical functioning, healthier habits, and enhanced social support. Interestingly, volunteering showed even greater protective effects among individuals with high levels of religious involvement and perceived social support. Moreover, regardless of religious affiliation, any level of volunteering was associated with a substantial 60% reduction in mortality among those who attended religious services weekly. These findings underscore the multifaceted benefits of volunteering, which extend beyond individual health habits to encompass broader aspects of social engagement and community involvement (Oman et al., 1999)¹¹.
Volunteering offers numerous benefits for both physical and mental health. It requires active engagement, which is inherently beneficial. Research suggests that volunteering may even counteract age-related decline in brain function, particularly among older adults who engage in activities like youth mentoring through programs such as Experience Corps (Carlson et al., 2009)¹². Teresa Seeman¹³, a faculty member at UCLA specializing in public health, has extensively studied these effects. Beyond its physiological impacts, volunteering provides individuals with a profound sense of purpose and meaning in life. By fostering social connections and a sense of belonging, it also serves as a buffer against stress and depression. Engaging in volunteering activities often leads to downward social comparisons, which can positively influence self-esteem. Furthermore, volunteering may involve travel and exposure to new experiences, enhancing overall well-being through novelty and exploration.
Explore the research of Dr. Tara Gruenwald¹⁴, Associate Professor and Chair of Psychology at Chapman University, who delves into the concept of generativity among older adults. One notable paper she co-authored with Dr. Teresa Seeman is titled: Contributing to others, contributing to oneself: perceptions of generativity and health in later life¹⁵.
Can We Make You Prosocial?
Human behavior often inclines towards kindness and selflessness, possibly driven by evolutionary factors. Both Kin Selection Theory and Reciprocal Altruism Theory propose that our evolutionary success hinges on our ability to provide resources to others. Altruistic behavior offers numerous benefits, including reduced distress, enhanced health, and a heightened sense of meaning and purpose in life. Additionally, societal norms and upbringing play a significant role in fostering altruism. Socialization teaches us the importance of helping others, and there are often reciprocal benefits involved, such as receiving assistance from others in return.
Check out this study conducted by Dr. Alice Isen and Dr. Paula Levin, which examines the impact of positive affect on helpfulness in their paper titled, Effect of Feeling Good on Helping: Cookies and Kindness¹⁶.
The “Glow of Goodwill”
Elevating individuals' moods increases the probability of them extending help to others. For instance, in the Isen & Levin Study¹⁶, discovering a coin was associated with assisting someone in retrieving dropped papers, a trend observed across different demographics, including sexes, races, and ages.
- What is prosocial behavior?
- Describe the study design and goals.
- What are the main study findings?
- What is the difference between prosocial behavior vs. self-compassion?
Definitions
- Prosocial behaviors
- actions intended towards helping others, driven by a sincere concern for their rights, emotions, and welfare
- Kin Selection Theory
- organisms may act altruistically towards relatives to increase the chances of passing on shared genes
- Reciprocal Altruism Theory
- individuals help others in expectation of future help
Attribution
¹Nelson, S. K., Layous, K., Cole, S. W., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2016). Do unto others or treat yourself? The effects of prosocial and self-focused behavior on psychological flourishing. Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 16(6), 850–861. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000178
²Van Lange, P. A. M., & Columbus, S. (2021). Vitamin S: Why Is Social Contact, Even With Strangers, So Important to Well-Being? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 30(3), 267–273. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214211002538
³Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending Money on Others Promotes Happiness. Science, 319(5870), 1687–1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952
⁴Whillans, A. V., Dunn, E. W., Sandstrom, G. M., Dickerson, S. S., & Madden, K. M. (2016). Is spending money on others good for your heart? Health Psychology, 35(6), 574–583. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000332
⁵Nelson, S. K., Layous, K., Cole, S. W., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2016). Do unto others or treat yourself? The effects of prosocial and self-focused behavior on psychological flourishing. Emotion, 16(6), 850–861. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000178
⁶Nelson-Coffey, S. K., O’Brien, M. M., Braunstein, B. M., Mickelson, K. D., & Ha, T. (2021). Health behavior adherence and emotional adjustment during the COVID-19 pandemic in a US nationally representative sample: The roles of prosocial motivation and gratitude. Social Science & Medicine, 284, 114243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114243
⁷Nelson-Coffey, S. K., Fritz, M. M., Lyubomirsky, S., & Cole, S. W. (2017). Kindness in the blood: A randomized controlled trial of the gene regulatory impact of prosocial behavior. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 81, 8–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.03.025
⁸Nickell, G. (1998). The Helping Attitudes Scale. Paper presented at 106th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association at San Francisco, August, 1998.
⁹Haller, E., Lubenko, J., Presti, G., Squatrito, V., Constantinou, M., Nicolaou, C., Papacostas, S., Aydın, G., Chong, Y. Y., Chien, W. T., Cheng, H. Y., Ruiz, F. J., García-Martín, M. B., Obando-Posada, D. P., Segura-Vargas, M. A., Vasiliou, V. S., McHugh, L., Höfer, S., Baban, A., … Gloster, A. T. (2022). To Help or Not to Help? Prosocial Behavior, Its Association With Well-Being, and Predictors of Prosocial Behavior During the Coronavirus Disease Pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.775032
¹⁰Reddinger, J. L., Charness, G., & Levine, D. (2022). Prosocial motivation for vaccination [PDF]. Retrieved from https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.04.21.22274110v2.full.pdf
¹¹Oman, D., Thoresen, C.E., Mcmahon, K. (1999). Volunteerism and Mortality among the Community-dwelling Elderly. Journal of Health Psychology. 4(3):301-316. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/135910539900400301
¹²Carlson, M. C., Erickson, K. I., Kramer, A. F., Voss, M. W., Bolea, N., Mielke, M., McGill, S., Rebok, G. W., Seeman, T., & Fried, L. P. (2009). Evidence for Neurocognitive Plasticity in At-Risk Older Adults: The Experience Corps Program. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A, 64A(12), 1275–1282. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glp117
¹³Teresa Ellen Seeman. University of California, Los Angeles, Department of Epidemiology, [Faculty Profile]. (2024). Retrieved from https://ph.ucla.edu/about/faculty-staff-directory/teresa-ellen-seeman
¹⁴Tara Gruenewald. Chapman University, Department of Psychology. [Faculty Profile]. (2024). Retrieved from https://www.chapman.edu/our-faculty/tara-gruenewald
¹⁵Gruenewald, T. L., Liao, D. H., & Seeman, T. E. (2012). Contributing to others, contributing to oneself: Perceptions of generativity and health in later life. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 67(6), 660–665. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbs034
¹⁶Isen, A. M., & Levin, P. F. (1972). Effect of feeling good on helping: Cookies and kindness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 21(3), 384–388. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0032317