4.3: Language Barriers

Increasing Communication Competence

We encounter many language barriers. How we address or work with these barriers can increase our communication competence. Conversational skills are learned. Despite what we may have learned in the past, these skills are something we are consistently working on. We assume that because we have been communicating our whole lives that we have attained skills. However, communication does not mean that we simply get “better” with experience, without knowledge and practicing specific skills. In fact, when employers describe their ideal candidate, “communication skills” is on the top of the list. Therefore, it is important for us to learn about barriers we experience, skills that will improve our communication competence, and putting those skills to practice. One of the many barriers we experience is related to apprehension.

Communication Apprehension

Communication apprehension is the hesitancy or discomfort surrounding our communication events. This is common in oral communication (Loureiro, et al., 2020). One of our authors gives this example:

As a professor, I feel comfortable lecturing. However, when my family and I are ordering food at a restaurant, I am uncomfortable. In part, this is my lived experience. People can be rude when they are hungry and take it out on food servers.

Those who have worked in the food industry have been on the receiving end of this incivility. Our lived experience is one of many reasons for our communication apprehension. We may not fully understand the reason(s) that we have high communication apprehension in some realms but not others. However, James McCroskey designed an assessment tool, the PRCA-24, to help us determine  where we experience different levels of communication apprehension in different spheres (public, interpersonal, group, and meetings). Knowing where we experience communication apprehension helps us appreciate the way we typically react and how to change these behaviors in an attempt to lower our communication apprehension.

Jung and McCroskey (2004) found that non-native English speakers experience communication apprehension at an increased rate. Moderating factors included the number of years that participants had lived in the US and the number of years of that they had spoken English. This means that when we communicate interculturally, communication apprehension is higher and that becomes a barrier. We can utilize intercultural communication competence tools to help us achieve a positive communication event.

Culture

There are many skills at our disposal that relate to culture. Culture is influenced by communication and our perceptions (Balakrishnan, et al., 2021). We can start by becoming more culturally empathetic. “Cultural empathy requires a perception of the needs of others, as well as the knowledge of their cultural specificities'' (Gonçalves, et al., 2020, p. 246). We should try to be attuned to the emotional needs of others and be able to practice perspective-taking—that is, attempt to understand the other person’s perspective.

Social intelligence and cultural sensitivity can help mitigate language barriers. Social intelligence in this context means that we seek understanding of someone’s language and culture in an attempt to reach communication competence. For example, we can learn about the rituals and customs of someone’s culture, which would help us to understand our communication partners and avoid language barriers. Cultural sensitivity relates to how we are open minded and overcome these barriers. When we seek out information about a culture without preconceived notions, we can be both culturally sensitive and more socially intelligent.

We can also avoid ethnocentric behaviors. Ethnocentrism is when we tend to see the world through our own cultural lens and judge others’ behaviors by the standards we hold. When we hold other people to our own standards, we are asserting our dominance and superiority, and we not taking into account cultural differences or barriers that exist. While it may sound straightforward to avoid ethnocentric behaviors, we must begin by becoming aware of what ethnocentric ideals we have and when we apply them. Only then can we start to eliminate our ethnocentric behaviors. This relates to the way we communicate and taking responsibility with our language use.

Consider This: Introducing English Idioms to Second-Language Speakers

One of our authors shares this example:

Since English is my second language, I translated very literally when I first began to learn English. I was confused by many of these strange American sayings—and I wasn’t the only one! A good friend of mine from graduate school was an international student from Japan who spoke very proficient English. She went to one of her advisor’s classes to talk about her thesis. Before leaving, her advisor asked her to come back and share the results of her thesis when she had finished. She agreed, and he responded, “It’s a date!” She was utterly baffled, but she did not want to disrespect her advisor. With a slow and reluctant nod, she answered, “OK… but I will have to ask my boyfriend first.” I later learned that some of these “strange American sayings” are referred to as idioms.

Idioms are figurative-language phrases that require understanding of cultural context to determine meaning—which is never the literal, dictionary definition of the strung-together phrases. Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) lists some common idioms that may cause confusion for English language learners.

Table \(\PageIndex{1}\): Common English Idioms

Idiom	What a Non-native English Speaker Might Be Picturing	Actual Meaning
Beat around the bush		To avoid getting to the point of an issue Example: “Stop beating around the bush, and tell me the bad news.”
Let the cat out of the bag		To disclose a secret Example: “I accidentally let the cat out of the bag, and now everyone knows you won the lottery!”
Break the ice		To get to know people; get a conversation going Example: “Let me break the ice and tell you a little something about myself and our company.”
Pull someone's leg		To exaggerate the truth, usually as a joke Example: “I was pulling his leg when I told him I swallowed a fly. I didn’t think he would be so grossed out.”
Beat a dead horse		To waste time on something that cannot be changed Example: “There is no point in beating a dead horse. It’s time to buy a new car.”
Barking up the wrong tree		To waste time by going after the wrong thing Example: “You’re barking up the wrong tree begging for money, because I’m broke!”
Bite the bullet		To force oneself to do something difficult or unpleasant Example: “I had to bite the bullet and attend traffic school.”
On the ball		Describes people who are efficient, effective, talented, and aware of what’s around them Example: “Danny was on top of the ball and graduated in three years instead of four.”
Straight from the horse’s mouth		Getting information directly from the source who has direct knowledge of something Example: “Unless I hear it straight from the horse’s mouth, I won’t believe she is retiring.”
Kill two birds with one stone		To do two things with one action Example: “We can kill two birds with one stone by using the soup base in two different recipes.”

Table created by Kim Yee CC BY-NC-SA
Clipart source: English idioms by Graphics RF from Vecteezy (Free License)

Discussion Questions/Journal Prompts:

1. What other English idioms might confuse English language learners?
2. If you speak another language, are there idioms used in your language you’d like to share?
3. Why do we use idioms instead of saying what we mean?

Activities with Idioms:

1. Pick an idiom and draw its literal and figurative meanings.
2. Pick an idiom and act it out as a charade.
3. Use idioms as discussion starters. For example:
   • Tell us about a time you had to “burn the midnight oil.”
   • Describe something that “gets under your skin.”
   • Tell about a time when you were able to “kill two birds with one stone.”
   • Describe a situation where you had to “bite the bullet.”
   • What is the best way to “break the ice” when meeting new people?
   • Describe a situation where “beating around the bush” is necessary.
4. What are some idioms you can use to give advice? For example:
   • Take what someone says with a grain of salt.
   • You can catch more flies with honey than vinegar.
   • You should bury the hatchet.
5. What are some idioms we use during holidays?
   • Valentine’s Day (to pop the question)
   • Halloween (skeleton in the closet)
   • Christmas (snowball effect)

Responsibility

When we are participating in a communication event, it is important to understand our role. In doing so, we must accept responsibility for the role that we play. We call this the language of responsibility. We know that using the language of responsibility in a corporate setting facilitates relationships (Joutsenvirta, 2009).

We can act responsibly by using it statements, and avoiding but statements and you statements. The use of pronouns confers blame; the language of responsibility aids us in avoiding blaming others while accepting responsibility for our own actions. When we remove pronouns completely and use the term “it,” we avoid pointing the finger at others and state the facts. For instance, instead of stating, “you forgot to take out the garbage,” I could state, “the garbage was not taken out,” or even “we forgot to take out the trash.” The latter infers that “we” are in this together and the issue is not about who did or did not take an action. This helps us to avoid “you statements.” Is there a way to reframe our language to avoid pointing fingers? By removing “you,” we can accept responsibility and not make someone else responsible for an action. With “but statements,” we essentially negate everything that came before the word but. For instance, a spouse states to another spouse, “I love you, but I really need you to take out the trash.” The way this is stated assumes that the idea of “love” is not the point, but rather that who takes out the trash is the pivotal part of the phrase. It can even infer that “love” is contingent on this action being taken. If we are on the opposite end of this statement, we may in fact, be concerned that the way this is exclaimed, points to the fact that the trash is more important than the relationship. We see this in many areas, specifically politics. Have you been on the opposite end of a non-apology? “I am sorry you feel that way.” I am not sorry for the action itself, but rather your reaction. By utilizing the language of responsibility, we can avoid hurting the relationship and promote relational and professional growth.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Relationship Couple Conflict, Amarpreet Singh, Pixabay

Defensive Communication

Defensiveness is the opposite of the language of responsibility, so it is important to start by recognizing when we use defensive language and then ensure we focus on the issue at hand instead of on the other person or their actions. John Gottman (2012), a leading researcher in marital relationships, found that defensive communication is one of the most destructive relationship behaviors and in fact a leading indicator of future divorce. This research has been extended to communication in a broad setting. Defensiveness is defined by the perception of threat or threatening behavior (Gibbs, 1965). Avoiding defensiveness and airing grievances can spur relational growth and relational satisfaction (Gottman & Silver, 1994). I focus on four main types of defensive communication in this section: dogmatism, superiority, indifference, and control messages.

Dogmatism

Dogmatism is when we use emotional justification rather than evidence-based justification (Harrison, 2021). We typically do not notice when we respond using a dogmatic perspective. We are inextricably connected to our emotions, and with dogmatism we are operating from our sense of self. This is defensive behavior: when we use emotions to justify our stance, we leave out empirical evidence. We lack connection to our relational communication partners. This dismissive behavior hurts the relationships involved. For example, in a professional environment I was explaining why I process I had developed was a better option than our previous process. Another person said to me, “Why does that make you correct?” I realized I was using my emotions rather than logic in my explanation. I switched my tone and focused on the evidence that I had. Focusing on evidence and the argument itself can be a strong skill to develop.

Superiority

According to Gottman (2012), any time we “act superior,” we are saying that we are correct and that the other(s) must be “damaged.” Therefore, superiority is a form of defensiveness. We can start by recognizing when we are using judging language and attempt to use the language of responsibility in its place. We can also try to focus on why we think our stance is superior and focus on those traits, using a discussion communication style rather than prescriptive communication style. If we create a habit of challenging why we believe we are correct, we can then focus on the issue at hand and avoid superiority.

Indifference

We display indifference when we show a lack of caring or connection to the other person(s) and/or the content of the message. At times we do not show our interest to our communication partners, which results in harm to the relationship(s). Indifference can take many forms. At times it is intentional and meant to be understood by our relational partners, and other times we simply do not see that we lack caring or connection. This is related to the different contexts of communication: culture, relational, and situational. These contexts play a role in how involved we are in the communication event. For example, if we are communicating with someone whom we do not care to continue in relationship with, we may intentionally use indifference. Whereas, perhaps our cultural lens is different than our communication partner and we do not see our communication behavior as indifferent, but culturally we are giving space to avoid being rude or engaging in cultural clashes. If we care about the relationship, we can show caring within these contexts. By engaging in a way that shows that we care, we promote the relationship—if we also keep in mind what is appropriate culturally, and what is appropriate for the situation.

Control Messages

Control messages are meant to coerce rather than persuade relational partners to an action. We have seen this in history. If you look at the Milgram experiment, participants were asked to shock people, by use of control and authoritarian messages. Participants did not know that there was no shock being administered. The experiment showed that humans are susceptible to control messages. When we are told what to do using manipulative or coercive messages, we tend to obey. This lack of critical thinking focuses on superiority and hurts all involved. The participants in the experiment disclosed being unable to resist the commands they received, and as a result became distraught and experienced trauma. This reflects what happens to us when we receive control messages. Therefore, we can avoid control messages and use ethical means of persuasion instead. For instance, when my son exhibits “bad behavior,” instead of focusing on consequences of his actions, I can focus on the benefits of positive behavior.

Bias

When discussing language barriers, we include our understanding of culture and our perceptions, which are ingrained in the language we use and its implications. When we discuss bias, we tend to focus on the negative connotations. Simply put, bias relates to our preferences. If I ask you for your favorite color, favorite musical artist, or favorite podcaster, you likely have a response.

When we discuss bias when it comes to culture, we are talking about when those preferences become negative. Perhaps you prefer to have your hair or romantic partner’s hair blond. This is a preference. When this becomes negative is when we think of and treat others differently as a result. When we put people into classifications, that is stereotyping. Is this negative? It depends on what transpires. If I am your professor, and I assume you are brilliant because you wear glasses and then hold you to a higher standard than other students, that is negative (and should never happen). This stereotyping could be positive, too: for example, perhaps you wear glasses and do identify as a brilliant person.

However, stereotyping is largely negative. We don’t like being put into boxes. These boxes can be understood as a wide array of categories from our race and ethnicity to our demographics and personality. It would be unfortunate if being put into a certain box prevented us from potential employment. For instance, if I choose a box that states that I have a disability, will that prevent potential employers from hiring me? Therefore, we must acknowledge our biases and try to avoid negative stereotypes.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Two people, man, woman, working at a table, Amanda Mills, USCDCP, Pixnio

Prejudice

Prejudice is when our stereotyping has turned from preferences into hate and hateful actions. Prejudice is defined as “a preconceived judgment or opinion, usually based on limited information” (Tatum, 2017, p. 85). Many prejudices are influenced by misinformation, We have prejudiced action when we use hostile statements based on group membership (Cary & Chasteen, 2021). Prejudice is experienced in face-to-face interactions as well as online. As we are communicating more through online means, we see prejudice in many platforms and contexts. Recent research has shown that prejudice is found in gaming (Cary & Chasteen, 2022), television news (Takano, et al., 2021), social media (Capobianco, 2020), and even academia (Hurd, et al., 2022; Ruf, 2020). On gaming platforms, gamers communicate. As this is an open forum, prejudicial comments are made and are in fact commonplace. Cary, Axt, and Chasteen (2020) found that early interventions reduced these actions. Let’s say you are gaming and someone says something prejudicial (i.e., a comment about you that relates to your group membership). If the comments are confronted, there is a better chance that prejudicial actions will be reduced. If the comments are not confronted, then the other person may feel like this is banter and playful instead of hurtful, thereby continuing prejudicial actions. Prejudice often turns into hate speech.

Hate Speech

Marginalized people are people that are excluded and discriminated against due to their group membership, typically related to race, sexual orientation, gender and/or gender identity, socioeconomic status, age, disability, and others. Microaggressions are hostile or negative messages towards people within marginalized groups. Microaggressions are defined as brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative slights and insults (Wing, 2007). These microaggressions can grow into hate speech. Hate speech consists of abhorrent messages used to hurt, incite violence, and inflict psychological harm (ŞtefÃniÞÃ & Buf, 2021). It is used in multiple contexts and against many types of targets, but most commly against marginalized people. The receipt of hate speech results in fear and anxiety, which ultimately increases stress (Crichton, 2019). Targeted marginalized groups are often subject to violent acts, known as hate crimes. While hate speech in many forms is protected under the First Amendment, hate crimes are not.

Racism and Sexism

Stereotyping can lead to racism and sexism. Racism is a systemic form of oppression using power dominance to control people based on race. Cultural racism is defined as “cultural images and messages that affirm the assumed superiority of Whites and the assumed inferiority of people of color” (Tatum, 2017, p. 86). Racism is rooted in oppression and oppressive systems put in place by dominant groups to control marginalized groups. Oppression occurs when the dominant group reinforces their power while withholding or suppressing marginalized groups from power. This may start with ethnocentrism, when we unconsciously see the world through our personal lens and fail to perspective take or see things from another’s perspective. These unconscious biases and assumptions are reinforced through structural processes. This occurs through institutional practices and policies based on cultural images and ideals that affirms systemic racism. When we pair oppression and racism with hierarchical structures, we reinforce systemic racism.

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Child Mother Work From Home, Max Pixel

Sexism is defined as discrimination or prejudice based on gender. When we discuss sexism we are often talking about women being treated with less respect than would a male counterpart. This can start with a generalization that turns into discrimination or prejudice. We have heard the joke that women are “bad” drivers. This may have started as a joke but become prejudicial quickly.

Sexism is pervasive and widespread, especially in the workplace. There is a disparity in wages between males and females. We are seeing more discriminatory sexist acts in the workplaces that take other forms, such as who gets parental leave when a child is born, how much time, the argument of fairness to childless persons, or the assumption that in a two-person relationship if a child is sick, a female in the relationship is responsible and thereby is a riskier hire than a male. Sexism affects those in the LGBTQIA+ community as well.

When we discuss gender, a lot of the time we discuss it in terms of biological sex, but it includes gender expression and identity. Take for instance a person who is transgender and how they may be treated in terms of biological sex norms. These "traditional" and antiquated views lead to the mistreatment of individuals based on their gender. Sexism is prevalent and we can begin to stem the tide by reviewing the language we use and exclude language rooted in negative and potentially untrue stereotypes and sexist language.

Muted group theory studies the differences in dominant and subdominant groups and explains how subdominant groups have less power and access than the dominant group. In the development of this theory, researchers started out by examining gender differences and the power dynamics in males versus females. However, muted group theory was not intended to primarily be about gender, but to lay the foundation to understand differences in the power of dominant and subdominant groups (Smith Barkman, 2018). Essentially, we are looking at why some people have power, and when they do, how they use it to keep that power and “mute” or prevent subdominant groups from attaining the same power. Marginalized or muted groups often do not see themselves as muted or do not feel they have power to change their position. According to Linda Smith Barkman (2018), there are four primary ways we can avoid people being muted:

1. We have different forms of expression, which also relates to power and how it is perceived. When we do not understand others’ forms of expression, divides are created in our communication. We can learn about different forms of expression to avoid these pitfalls.
2. We can start to recognize and understand others’ cultures and group membership and how that relates to their power or lack thereof.
3. Speaking up for marginalized others in an appropriate and nuanced way can benefit both dominant and muted groups.
4. It is sometimes difficult to see that a group is marginalized. It is therefore imperative to stay open-minded and ask ourselves what is happening related to group membership and power.