7.2: What Are Emotions?

Emotions Defined

Emotions and related terms can be misunderstood, so we will start by defining what emotions are. “Emotions are constituted by a process of categorizing the self as being in an emotional state” (Pober, 2018, p. 640). This process is both immediate and rapid (Rohmann, et al., 2009). Emotions are not synonymous with feelings. Emotions are more than the feelings we experience, although feelings are a big part of emotions. Feelings can be fleeting, while emotions are not fleeting and tend to be accompanied with physiological and nonverbal changes. Emotions can change over time and context, and are connected to physiological dimensions, cultural dimensions, cognitive interpretations, personality, and expression.

Consider This: Where Did You Learn To Feel? By Brielle Plump

Have you ever thought about where you learned how to feel? Feelings, emotions, and moods are often things we consider automatic, or simply part of our physiological responses. However, emotions and feelings—and specifically how we value and express them—are more influenced by our upbringing and society than you would think.

For example, there is one particular theory that can help us consider how we learned how to feel: the dimensions of cultural variability (Hofstede, 1980), which is based on a global study conducted by the researcher Geert Hofstede in the 1970s. Although culture has changed a lot since this theory was first developed, the dimensions covered in this theory can help us begin to understand some of the ways cultures (and specifically nationalities) communicate and behave. Per the theory, every country exists on a scale between the two extremes (high or low) of each dimension. For now, we will just look at one, the dimension of Achievement (formerly termed Masculinity). According to the theory, in a high Achievement society, success is marked by winning and material gain. Within an Achievement-based society, emotions may not be expressed outwardly as often, and may be communicated about within relationships in more subtle ways. In contrast, in a society that is low in this dimension, and considered a highly Nurturing society, success is based on cooperation, quality of life is an asset, and emotions may be more overtly expressed and outwardly displayed.

While the research within Hofstede’s studies have many limitations, it does help us understand how society impacts our communication surrounding emotions and emotional expression.

Reflection Question

1. Consider some of the other generalized ways achieving and nurturing cultures differ. How may emotions and feelings be valued or expressed as a result?
2. Also, consider your family history, where you grew up, and whether or not your surroundings represent a more achievement based or more nurturing culture. How might that impact how you process emotions?

Emotions are often seen as inherently negative. "Why are you so emotional? Oh, that person is too emotional." Beyond these uncomplimentary descriptions, why do we see emotions as negative? Why is it a bad idea to “be emotional?” As humans we are interconnected with our emotions. We literally have sayings like these: “Did you wake up on the wrong side of the bed?” “Don’t be so emo,” or “Don’t be so salty.” These sayings infer that from the start of our day, we are experiencing emotions and this connects to the events we experience in our day. Our emotions relate to our interpretation of events with others, our perceptions of those events, and our reaction as a result, which we call reappraisal. Since we communicate in our interpersonal relationships from our identity outward and that affects our perceptions, then our personality and self-concept affect our emotions. We embody our emotions. We experience events differently and the same is true of our emotions.

We experience multiple emotions simultaneously (Pober, 2018). For instance, consider the last time you felt incredibly excited. What other emotions were you experiencing? Let’s say you just got asked to go on a date with someone you really like. Perhaps you are excited but also nervous, apprehensive, invigorated, and even reluctant. It is common for us to experience all these different emotions at the same time. One emotion can fuel another emotion and spur a chain of reactions as emotions are experienced. Russell (2012) further defined emotions as a “cluster of events with unclear boundaries and no single cause” (p. 140). That sense of happiness may turn to elation, pride, and a sense of giddiness. Whereas the apprehension you experience may create or increase the likelihood of nervousness, reluctance, and fear over the date or romantic appeal of the person.

Emotions Are Relational

Not only do we internally experience emotions and are affected by others emotions, but we create chain emotions. Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) showcases psychologist Robert Pluchik’s wheel of emotions, which showcases eight central emotions that polarize one another. The eight emotions are joy and sadness, trust and disgust, fear and anger, and lastly, surprise and anticipation. These eight central emotions then extend outward and inward of the wheel, showcasing intensity of the emotions that can be felt. The information in this figure is also provided in Table \(\PageIndex{1}\), which lists the central emotions alongside the varying levels of intensity that can be felt from them. For example, an extension of joy could be serenity, optimism, or ecstasy, while an extension of sadness could be pensiveness, remorse, or grief. These chain emotions can be felt seemingly all at once or over time as our emotions grow or subside. As we get closer to our date, our ecstasy and nervousness/anticipation might turn to optimism.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Plutchik Wheel by Robert Pluchik on Wikipedia Commons

Intensity of Emotions as Displayed in the Plutchnik Wheel

Central Emotion	Varying Intensities of Central Emotion
Joy	Ecstasy, serenity, optimism, or love
Trust	Admiration, acceptance, love, or submission
Fear	Terror, apprehension, submission, or awe
Surprise	Amazement, distraction, awe, or disapproval
Sadness	Grief, pensiveness, disapproval, or remorse
Disgust	Loathing, boredom, remorse, or contempt
Anger	Rage, annoyance, contempt, or aggressiveness
Anticipation	Vigilance, interest, aggressiveness, or optimism

Table \(\PageIndex{1}\): Intensity of Emotions by Elizabeth Encarnacion is licensed under CC BY 4.0

Emotions are relational. We are interdependent, which means that we mutually affect each other. We do this relationally and physically through our communication climate. The way we experience our emotions is related to the type of relationships we have developed. When you are sick, is there someone who brings you comfort? Does just the thought of that person being near you result in you not feeling as sick, starting to smile, or even feeling physically stronger? One of our authors shares her experience:

When my child was a baby and I had a bad day, seeing that baby face would result in me feeling better. Similarly, when I was sick as a child, I wanted to be near my grandmother. I had scarlet fever as a teenager, and I wanted her to be near me. She couldn’t provide medical assistance, but her presence resulted in a different mood and therefore, more positive emotions. Family, or other people we would consider our caretakers, tend to have this effect depending on the relationships we have with them.

The communication climate, or social tone of the relationship that we have with our partners, affect our emotions. There are physical spaces and people that allow us to feel like we can be our true and authentic selves, while in other spaces and relationships we may use a mask. A mask is our presenting self that we use to conceal certain aspects of ourselves. Perhaps at work, although we are still ourselves, we avoid certain language that we use in other contexts, do not share personal stories, or avoid certain details to meet the professional climate. Many of us have had an unexpected event that created sadness, anger, or frustration before we entered an environment where we did not want to share those emotions, which resulted in us masking our emotions. One of our authors shares an example: "My father had cancer and it was clear we had a small window of time before he passed away. I had lectures planned and wanted to avoid my students becoming my support system, so I used masking." This is commonplace in many professional settings, but also used in other contexts. Many of us have had to conceal information from others, which results in us using a mask. You may have heard the saying “wear many hats.” This is a way of saying we present certain aspects of ourselves while concealing others. Masking can be emotionally laborious and result in negative effects. In the film Encanto, the character Luisa develops an eye twitch from masking all the time. She is the strength in her family and does not want to admit to feeling weak at times, so she uses a mask. When it comes to our emotions, we tend to use masks without being conscious of the decision to do so. However, masking is common when we experience negative emotions. This is related to the physiological changes we experience with emotions.

Physiological Changes

Emotions are a deep-seated process that is happening continuously. When an event happens that results in our emotion occurring, we look at the physiological changes. This includes sweating, an increase in heart rate, a flush in our face, all the things we experience physiologically and nonverbally as we experience our emotions. Think of the last time you were “red hot angry” or “excited down to your toes.” What did you experience physiologically? Did you experience a feeling of raciness, perhaps an increased heart rate? Did you feel hot all over, perhaps sweaty? Our bodies react in conjunction with the emotions we are experiencing. Therefore, physiological changes are a part of our emotions.

Research has consistently found that emotions impact and are impacted by our physical selves (Tyng et al., 2017). Most notably, Tyng et al. (2017) found that the external sources of emotions are accompanied by internal physiological factors that impact the heart, lungs, gut, and so forth. Our body expresses emotions through our blood flow in order to regulate our homeostatic balances. For example, someone in a state of anger generates more “heat,” or excess blood flow throughout their body near the head, chest, and arms. Someone on the opposite end of the spectrum, in a neutral, state, generates so much less physical “heat” that the blood flow to extremities like their arms and legs is “cooled” or has slowed down. In addition, emotions can create physical reactions such as higher sweat production, restlessness, faster heartbeat, or increased breath rate. For example, the feeling of excitement and nervousness are usually characterized by the same physical traits while the emotions themselves are opposites.

To continue our example from earlier, when we are interacting with someone we want a romantic relationship with, that person might make us feel happy and nervous at the same time. Those two emotions may both showcase themselves through the same physiological changes of jittery movements, increased heart rate, and maybe sweaty palms. The same can be true of more unfavorable emotions. When we are experiencing a fight or argument within our interpersonal relationships, this can cause emotions of anger, anticipation, anxiety, and doubt. Those emotions can manifest themselves physiologically as rapid heart rate, sweat, increased breathing patterns, and jitteriness as well.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Painting of a man by Aarón Blanco Tejedor on Unsplash

Cultural Dimensions

Russell (2021) explains that emotions are defined and explained through cultural dimensions. This means that each culture defines emotions and their characteristics according to that culture’s environment. Culture is a blend of our lived experience and includes our group memberships. This means that culture is not limited to our race, ethnicity, geographical locations, political affiliations, socioeconomic status, or the like, but rather includes who we are as people on the whole. Every culture is different and has its own set of norms, rituals, and customs. Even when we share a culture with someone, our interpretations and experiences shape them differently. For example, do you identify with a religion or spiritual practice? Have you had disagreements about your interpretations of what that means to people within that group (in-group) or someone outside of that group (out-group)? How do these differences shape what emotions you experience?

One of our authors shares this example:

I grew up with two uncles who are ministers. Each within the same religious community, but both had different interpretations of the doctrines of their religion. When my uncle earned his PhD in religious studies, he told me as he counsels his parishioners and his advice when it comes to infidelity is to always work through it. My other uncle would not suggest the same idea, but rather attempts to understand the details surrounding the infidelity and not to give advice. In this illustration, we have two people of the same faith, raised similarly, with different outlooks (“worldviews”) that would alter how they experience emotions, despite being in a similar predicament.

Cognitive Dimensions and Personality

As discussed earlier, we integrate our culture, self-concept, and personality when we examine how emotions are processed. We consciously and unconsciously experience emotions. When we use cognitions, we interpret emotions and understand what circumstances led to this emotion, called the activating event. Emotions can be driven by this cognitive dimension (Kriegel, 2014). Whether we are conscious about emotions as they are occurring, that does not change their presence. Our interpretation and interaction with our emotions relates to our personalities. Emotions, personality, and behavior are interrelated (Mobbs, 2020). Personality is a relatively fixed set of characteristics based on our lived experience and our genetic make-up. Emotions are affected by the type of personality we have. Personality types have been used in two primary models, the Myers Brigg Type Indicator or the Big Five model (openness, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism). This is discussed further in the next section. Personality type has been related to different levels of depression and anxiety, which could be improved with early intervention (Rickles, et al., 2021). Understanding our personalities and how they relate to our emotions can help us become effective communicators in our relationships. Emotions entail cognitive dimensions and personality, and this leads to how emotions are expressed.

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Woman in black knit sweater covering face with her hand by Toa Heftiba on Unsplash

Nonverbal Expression

As you learned in Chapter 5, we express our emotions nonverbally. When we do not have a cognitive connection to the emotion that we are experiencing, sometimes our nonverbal expression is an indicator of our emotional state. There are many forms of nonverbal expression. We have implicit and explicit forms of emotional expression that develop over time and are largely culturally based (Tracy, et al., 2013). For instance, in Western society, nonverbal expressions of overconfidence, particularly when we do not feel confident, are viewed as more positive (Tenney, et al., 2019). Explicit expression of emotion is connected to power and status (Shariff & Tracy, 2009)—meaning how we respond to the emotions we are experiencing can help earn or lose respect and power. Explicit and implicit expressions of emotions are seen from infancy and form dyadic nonverbal patterns (Harrison & Beebe, 2018). These patterns help us to fully understand messages being exchanged. We display explicit expressions through our nonverbals, specifically facial expressions and body language. We are both implicitly and explicitly communicating our emotional state with our relational partners.

Implicit expressions of emotions can be cognitively complex. As discussed, we may be aware of or lack awareness in our emotions and also our expressions of our emotions. Take for instance stress. When we experience stress, it tends to be implicitly expressed. Successful management of our stress can avoid negative effects, such as anger (Suzuki & Tanaka, 2021). For example, if you perceive that you am physically hot and it is harder to mask, this could imply that you are upset or angry. Perhaps if you were unaware of these expressions, I may not realize that you are truly angry. Becoming aware of our implicit and explicit expressions of emotions can help us to become more competent communicators.

Verbal Expression

Emotions are verbally expressed. We do not always explicitly verbally express our emotions, because we may not be aware of what emotions we are experiencing. However, we express ourselves verbally, and at times our emotions are evident. Take for instance, being asked if you are upset. You say “no!”—but your volume, tone, and nonverbals tell a contradictory story. We cognitively interpret many of our emotions. We know that we are experiencing an emotion, and this knowledge can help us or become destructive depending on how we react. One of our authors shares the following example:

When my son was in the hospital and we were not sure what was going to happen, there was a lot of uncertainty and the emotions were negative. It was stressful, scary, frustrating, heartbreaking, and overwhelming. I exhibited a range of expressions as a result of these emotions. I would lash out at my partner (verbal) who was out of town, and then stonewall (nonverbal). It was not my partner’s fault, but my anger and frustration were clear in my expressions. I would yell or become silent on the phone when explaining the latest update from the doctor to my family.

Silence is culturally seen as a positive or negative. In Western society, it is seen as largely negative, whereas in other cultures silence is an important tool without a negative perception. Our author reflects:

Internally, my stress and anxiety were high. I was not managing my fear and the situation, so it made the experience harder. Had I managed this stress and anxiety, I would have been able to communicate more effectively with the doctors and my family, and my nonverbal expressions would have been more productive.

We cover coping with challenging emotions, such as fear and anxiety, at the end of the chapter. There are many influences that affect our emotional expression.