6.7: Developmental Disorders and Learning Disabilities
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Learning Outcomes
- Evaluate the impact of labeling on children’s self-concept and social relationships
- Describe autism spectrum disorder s
- Identify common learning disabilities such as dyslexia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Children’s cognitive and social skills are evaluated as they enter and progress through school. Sometimes this evaluation indicates that a child needs special assistance with language or in learning how to interact with others. Evaluation and diagnosis of a child can be the first step in helping to provide that child with the type of instruction and resources needed. But diagnosis and labeling also have social implications. It is important to consider that children can be misdiagnosed and that once a child has received a diagnostic label, the child, teachers and family members may tend to interpret actions of the child through that label. The label can also influence the child’s self-concept. Consider, for example, a child who is misdiagnosed as learning disabled. That child may expect to have difficulties in school, lack confidence, and out of these expectations, have trouble indeed. This self-fulfilling prophecy , or tendency to act in such a way as to make what you predict will happen, comes true, calls our attention to the power that labels can have whether or not they are accurately applied.
It is also important to consider that children’s difficulties can change over time; a child who has problems in school may improve later or may live under circumstances as an adult where the problem (such as a delay in math skills or reading skills) is no longer relevant. That person, however, will still have a label as learning disabled. It should be recognized that the distinction between abnormal and normal behavior is not always clear; some abnormal behavior in children is fairly common. Misdiagnosis may be more of a concern when evaluating learning difficulties than in cases of autism spectrum disorder where unusual behaviors are clear and consistent.
Keeping these cautionary considerations in mind, let’s turn our attention to some developmental and learning difficulties.
Autism Spectrum Disorder s
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder that affects communication and behavior. The estimate published by the Center for Disease Control (2018) is that about 1 out of every 54 children in the United States has been diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), which covers a wide variety of ranges in ability, from those with milder forms (formerly known as Asperger’s Syndrome) to more severe deficits in communication. [1]
Link to Learning
Learn more about Autism Spectrum Disorders at Autism Speaks, or the Autistic Self Advocacy Network .
A person with autism has difficulty with and a lack of interest in learning language. An autistic child may respond to a question by repeating the question or might rarely speak. Sometimes autistic children learn more difficult words before simple words or can complete complicated tasks before they are able to complete easier ones. The person often has difficulty reading social cues such as the meanings of non-verbal gestures such as a wave of the hand or the emotion associated with a frown. Intense sensitivity to touch or visual stimulation may also be experienced. Autistic children often have poor social skills and are often unable to communicate with others or empathize with others emotionally. People with autism often view the world differently and learn differently than people who do not have autism. Autistic children tend to prefer routines and patterns and become upset when routines are altered. For example, moving the furniture or changing the daily schedule can be very upsetting.
Many children with ASD are not identified until they reach school age, although our ability to diagnose children earlier continues to improve. In the 2017-2018 school year, about 710,000 children on the spectrum received special education through the public schools. [2] These disorders are found in all racial and ethnic groups and are more common in boys than in girls. All of these disorders are marked by difficulty in social interactions, problems in various areas of communication, and in difficulty with altering patterns or daily routines. There is no single cause of ASD and the causes of these disorders are to a large extent, unknown. In cases involving identical twins, if one twin has autism, the other is also autistic about 75 percent of the time. Rubella, fragile X syndrome and PKU that has been untreated are some of the medical conditions associated with risks of autism.
Some individuals benefit from medications that alleviate some of the symptoms of ASD, but the most effective treatments involve behavioral intervention and teaching techniques used to promote the development of language and social skills. Children also excel when they are in structured learning environments that accommodate the needs of children on the spectrum.
Learning Disabilities
What is a learning disability? If a child is mentally disabled, that child is typically slow in all areas of learning. However, a child with a learning disability has problems in a specific area or with a specific task or type of activity related to education. A learning difficulty refers to a deficit in a child’s ability to perform an expected academic skill (Berger, 2005). These difficulties are identified in school because this is when children’s academic abilities are being tested, compared, and measured. Consequently, once academic testing is no longer essential in that person’s life (as when they are working rather than going to school) these disabilities may no longer be noticed or relevant, depending on the person’s job and the extent of the disability.
Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. Dyslexia is one of the most commonly diagnosed disabilities and involves having difficulty in the area of reading. This diagnosis is used for a number of reading difficulties. For example, the child may reverse letters, may have difficulty reading from left to right, or may have problems associating letters with sounds. Dyslexia appears to be rooted in some neurological problems involving the parts of the brain active in recognizing letters, verbally responding, or being able to manipulate sounds (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2006). Treatment typically involves altering teaching methods to accommodate the person’s particular problematic area.
WAtch It
Reading expert Margie Gillis explains dyslexia in the following video:
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: http://pb.libretexts.org/lsdm/?p=242
You can view the transcript for “What Is Dyslexia? | Dyslexia Explained” here (opens in new window) .
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is considered a neurological and behavioral disorder in which a person has difficulty staying on task, screening out distractions, and inhibiting behavioral outbursts. The most commonly recommended treatment involves the use of medication, structuring the classroom environment to keep distractions at a minimum, tutoring, and teaching parents how to set limits and encourage age-appropriate behavior (NINDS, 2006). Some people say that the term Attention Deficit is a misnomer because people who suffer from ADHD actually have great difficulty tuning things out. They are bombarded with information… their brains are trying to pay attention to everything. They do not have a deficit of attention- they are trying to pay attention to too many things at once, so everything suffers.
Recent research suggests that several brain structures may be implicated in ADHD. These studies have mainly focused on the frontal lobe and prefrontal cortex. [3] Some studies suggest that the frontal lobe is underdeveloped in children and adults with ADHD. [4] [5] The frontal lobe is involved in executive function, attention, planning, impulse control, motivation, and decision making. In some cases the development is delayed, but catches up to expected standards by adulthood; in other cases, the frontal lobe never fully develops.
link to learning
How is ADHD diagnosed? The DSM-V lists the criteria that must be present in order for a diagnosis to be made and an official diagnosis must be made by a qualified mental health professional. It is also important to note that the term ADD is an older term that has been phased out in the newer versions of the DSM. Review the criteria for ADHD. Do you think that making a diagnosis would be difficult? Why or why not?
In general, ADHD is treated with stimulants. While this may seem counter-intuitive (why give a hyperactive child a stimulant?), when you understand the neurological processes involved, it makes a lot of sense. There are two ways that stimulants may work to help people with ADHD focus. Some researchers have found that the stimulants activate the underdeveloped parts of the brain (prefontal cortex and frontal lobe) thereby making these brain areas function more as they should. [6] This allows the child or adult to focus properly. Other researchers suspect that the stimulants affect the way the neurotransmitters function in these brain areas, leading to better function in those areas. [7] [8]
There is still a lot of controversy about medicating children with ADHD. While there is clear evidence that medication works to control the negative effects of ADHD, there are also negative side effects that must be dealt with including problems sleeping, changes in appetite, headaches, and more. Further, the long term effects of medicating young children are not well understood. For these reasons, many parents prefer an intervention that does not involve medication. The most common non-pharmaceutical intervention for ADHD is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT). CBT works by helping children to become aware of their thought processes, and then to learn to change those thought processes to be more beneficial or positive. [9] CBT can also help by educating parents about ways to help their children learn about self-control and discipline. There is very good evidence that CBT is an effective strategy in treating ADHD. Indeed, in some studies, children treated with CBT have better long term outcomes than children treated with medication. Some studies show that a combination of medication and CBT is most beneficial because the medication helps with behavior change more quickly, allowing for the child to learn through CBT more quickly. The CBT then helps with longer-term behavior change so that the child can stop taking medications and deal effectively with their ADHD symptoms based on what they have learned through CBT.
Glossary
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
- a neurological and behavioral disorder in which a person has difficulty staying on task, screening out distractions, and inhibiting behavioral outbursts
- autism spectrum disorder
- a developmental disorder that affects communication and behavior
- dyslexia
- a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities
- self-fulfilling prophecy
- the tendency to act in a way that makes what you predict will happen come true
- Data & Statistics on Autism Spectrum Disorder. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html . mailto:/Sandboxes/lhrli@ucdavis.edu
- National Center for Education Statistics. Children 3 to 21 years old served under Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d18/tables/dt18_204.30.asp . mailto:/Sandboxes/lhrli@ucdavis.edu
- Sheridan, M. A., Hinshaw, S., & D'Esposito, M. (2010). Stimulant medication and prefrontal functional connectivity during working memory in ADHD: a preliminary report. Journal of attention disorders, 14(1), 69–78. doi:10.1177/1087054709347444 mailto:/Sandboxes/lhrli@ucdavis.edu
- American Academy of Childhood and Adolescent Psychiatry. ADHD & the Brain No. 121 (February 2017). Retrieved from https://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFF-Guide/ADHD_and_the_Brain.aspx mailto:/Sandboxes/lhrli@ucdavis.edu
- Low, Keath. How Stimulants Work to Reduce ADHD Symptoms. Verywell Mind. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/how-do-stimulants-for-adhd-work-20895 . mailto:/Sandboxes/lhrli@ucdavis.edu
- Sheridan, M. A., Hinshaw, S., & D'Esposito, M. (2010). Stimulant medication and prefrontal functional connectivity during working memory in ADHD: a preliminary report. Journal of attention disorders, 14(1), 69–78. doi:10.1177/1087054709347444 mailto:/Sandboxes/lhrli@ucdavis.edu
- Stimulant Medications for ADHD. WebMD. Retrieved from https://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/adhd-stimulant-therapy#1 mailto:/Sandboxes/lhrli@ucdavis.edu
- Low, Keath. How Stimulants Work to Reduce ADHD Symptoms. Verywell Mind. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/how-do-stimulants-for-adhd-work-20895 . mailto:/Sandboxes/lhrli@ucdavis.edu
- Understood. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: What You Need to Know. Retrieved from https://www.understood.org/en/learning-attention-issues/treatments-approaches/therapies/faqs-about-cognitive-behavioral-therapy mailto:/Sandboxes/lhrli@ucdavis.edu
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- Modification, adaptation, and original content. Authored by : Stephanie Loalada for lule. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
- Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. Authored by : Laura Overstreet. Located at : http://opencourselibrary.org/econ-201/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
- frustrated girl . Authored by : amenclinicsphotos. Provided by : www.amenclinics.com. Located at : https://www.flickr.com/photos/125892716@N05/14419446729 . License : CC BY: Attribution
- What is Dyslexia?. Provided by : Understood. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=170&v=kE3DqJP-nkI . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License