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11.8: Resources and References

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    Review

    Key Points

    • Science describes and explains certain objective realities, independent of the diversity of perspectives and views.
    • Even the simplest living organisms represent immensely complex self-regulating systems. The extent of complexity increases further from organisms to ecosystems and the biosphere. Numerous non-linear interactions are involved in their workings, many of them unknown.
    • Despite their diversity, all life forms on Earth share a great deal of molecular constituents and biochemical processes.
    • Biological evolution has created life forms of increasing complexity and diversity, joined into ecosystems through interactions and energy flows.
    • Solar energy flows into ecosystems, travels through successive trophic layers of organisms and leaves in the form of heat.
    • Humans evolved as primarily vegetarian primates that were subject to predation by carnivores. We evolved, and continue to exist, in integration with nature and are entirely dependent on her.
    • All living organisms share a degree of awareness about their surroundings; many are able to interact intelligently with their environment with the help of diverse modes of sensory perception. The human senses constitute only a subset of those modes.
    • Extending from our sensory perceptions, humans evolved complex systems of social interaction and communication through sound and gesture, culminating in language.
    • Language allowed us to create names for things, shared representations that governed our interactions within and between social groups.
    • Many other vertebrates share with humans a structural and functional partitioning of the brain that allows separate hemispheres to analyse the environment by reduction or by integration, respectively. Human language centers reside primarily in the left, reductionist hemisphere.
    • Our abilities for abstraction and objectification of nature became particularly pronounced in Western European cultures, supporting the development of mechanistic and hierarchical world views which allowed the exploitation of nature as ‘resources’ and as means to human ends.
    • Human cultures construct shared social realities that consist of structures and objects that are ontologically subjective. Yet, through their continuous use they tend to be treated as ontologically objective entities, as if they were ‘natural’. This includes our economic and political institutions, customs and traditions.
    • Individual perceptions of’ ‘reality’ are informed by numerous such socially constructed and shared entities and relationships, at times in contradiction to what our senses tell us.
    • This has influenced humanity’s interaction with ‘nature’ through a series of successively more disastrous stages, culminating in our ‘war against nature’. Reversing that course of collective development and averting its most catastrophic outcomes will require our critical engagement with the ways in which we make sense of the world and impart value on it.

    .Extension Activities & Further Research

    1. Explain your personal position with respect to the idea of a war against nature. In what ways do you find the ideas acceptable? How do you see yourself involved in this war?
    2. Identify the major combatant parties who are waging the war against nature in your community? In your province or state? In your country? How does the winning or losing of battles manifest in that context?
    3. Examine your personal development through childhood, adolescence and beyond: How were the ideas of anthropocentrism, human-nature dualism and left-hemisphere domination brought to your attention by teachers, peers, family members?
    4. What university courses have your experienced (or perhaps only heard of) that do not conform to those conventions? On what grounds did the instructors justify their dissent, if at all?

    List of Terms

    See Glossary for full list of terms and definitions.

    • agency
    • Anthropocene
    • Anthropocentric
    • Anthropogenic
    • autopoietic
    • biotic pyramid
    • collective intentionality
    • consensual paranoia
    • dualistic thinking
    • ecological rationality
    • emergence
    • empathy
    • fallacy of misplaced concreteness
    • lethal raiding
    • LUCA
    • metaphysical metaphors
    • mirror neurons
    • neural network
    • NPP
    • ontologically objective
    • ontologically subjective
    • ontology
    • paradigm
    • reflexivity
    • resilience
    • self-organization
    • social construction
    • systems thinking
    • theory of mind

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    Footnote

    1. For illustrations of these homologies, see Shubin (2008).
    2. This figure may be under revision downward, to no more than 81%–see Stanley (2016).
    3. See Ripple & Beschta (2011) and How Wolves Change Rivers video.
    4. See also Simard’s TED talk.
    5. See also Hall (2011) and Chamovitz (2012) for more popularized thinking about plants.
    6. Watch the honeybee waggle dance video.
    7. See List of animals by number of neurons for comparison diagrams.
    8. Frans de Waal’s Are We Smart Enough to Know How Smart Animals Are? (2016) provides some detailed examples. Over the last five to 10 years or so, there has been a veritable explosion of research reports, popular articles and books detailing the cognitive capacities of other animals. For example, see Baboon Metaphysics (Cheney & Seyfarth 2007), The Genius of Birds (Ackerman 2016), ‘Thinking Chickens’ (Marino 2017) and What a Fish Knows (Balcombe 2016).
    9. Frans de Waal’s (1982) Chimpanzee Politics provides a classic description of this kind of behavior, something that is often on display in our human realm as well. You can watch de Waal’s TED talk on moral behavior in animals. An excerpt from this video, highlighting the capuchin 'sense of justice,' can be seen in this video clip.
    10. See Nietzsche, F. 1974year?. The Gay Science. New York: Random House, Inc. pp. 169-172, pp. 297-300.
    11. See, for example, Suzuki & Knudtson (1992) and Perkins (1994).
    12. For an introduction to the Solomon Asch experiment by Philip Zimbardo, watch this video.
    13. For an accessible explanation of the shift in scientific thinking, see Capra (1996).
    14. See, e.g. Plumwood (1993; 2002); also see Caviola et al. (2019).

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