Master Key Terms/Glossary

Chapter One

● American politics - a subfield of political science which focuses on political institutions and behaviors within the United States.

● Area studies - a traditional method for comparing where scholarship is organized geographically.

● Between-nation comparisons - where subnational governments are compared across different countries.

● Comparative politics - a subfield of study within political science that seeks to advance understanding of political structures from around the world in an organized, methodological, and clear way.

● Confederal government - a system of government where sovereignty is held at subnational levels. (Example: Switzerland, Iraq).

● Cross-national studies - a method for comparison similar to area studies but often considered unique as comparison occurs involving two or more countries, not necessarily confined to a single similar region.

● Federal government - national or centralized authority differentiated from state and local governments. Federalism is a system where governmental power is shared between the federal, state and local governments. (Example: United States, Canada)

● Formal institutions - institutions are based on a clear set of rules that have been formalized. Formal institutions often have the authority to enforce the rules, usually through punitive measures

● Informal institutions - institutions are based on an unwritten set of rules that have not necessarily been formalized. Informal institutions are based on conventions on how one should behave.

● Institutions - the beliefs, norms and organizations which structure social and political life.

● International relations - (sometimes called World Politics, International Affairs or International Studies), a subfield of political science which focuses on how countries and/or international organizations or bodies interact with each other.

● Political economy - a subfield of political science that considers various economic theories (like capitalism, socialism, communism, fascism), practices and outcomes either within a state, or among and between states in the global system.

● Political institutions - they are the space where the majority of politics and political decisions take place.

● Political philosophy - (sometimes called political theory), a subfield of political science which reflects on the philosophical origins of politics, the state, government, fairness, equality, equity, authority and legitimacy.

● Political psychology - a subfield within political science, which weds together principles, themes and research from both political science and psychology, in order to understand the potential psychological roots for political behavior.

● Political science - a field of social and scientific inquiry which seeks to advance knowledge of political institutions, behavior, activities, and outcomes using systematic and logical research methods in order to test and refine theories about how the political world operates.

● Public policy - a subfield of political science that explores political policies and outcomes, and focuses on the strength, legitimacy and effectiveness of political institutions within a state or society.

● Qualitative research - type of research approach which centers on exploring ideas and phenomena, potentially with the goal of consolidating information or developing evidence to form a theory or hypothesis to test.

● Qualitative research - type of research approach categorizing, summarizing and analyzing cases more thoroughly, and possibly individually, to gain greater understanding.

● Quantitative research - type of research approach which centers on testing a theory or hypothesis, usually through mathematical and statistical means, using data from a large sample size.

● Research methods and models - a subfield of political science in itself, as it seeks to consider the best practices for analyzing themes within political science through discussion, testing and critical analysis of how research is constructed and implemented.

● Sovereignty - fundamental governmental power, where the government has the power to coerce those to do things they may not want to do.

● Subnational studies - a method for comparison where subnational governments are compared.

● Unitary government - a type of government where power is centralized at a national level, sometimes with a President/Prime Minister and a national Parliament. (Example: France, Britain).

● Within-nation comparisons - is studying the subnational governments or institutions within a single country.

Chapter Two

● Applied research - defined as “research that attempts to explain social phenomena with immediate public policy implications.''

● Assumptions - statements that are taken to be true, or statements that are accepted as true, without proof.

● Case - is defined as a “spatially delimited phenomenon (a unit) observed at a single point in time, or over some period of time."

● Case study - an intensive look into that single case, often with the intent that this single case may help us better understand a particular variable of interest.

● Causal case studies - case studies “organized around a central hypothesis about how X affects Y”.

● Causal mechanism - defined as “portable concepts that explain how and why a hypothesized cause, in a given context, contributes to a particular outcome”.

● Causal question - involves discerning cause and effect, also referred to as a causal relationship.

● Comparative case study - defined as a study that is structured on the comparison of two or more cases.

● Deductive reasoning - occurs when political scientists make an inference and then test its truth using evidence and observations.

● Dependent variables (outcome variables) - the assumed effect, their values will (presumably) depend on the changes in the independent variables.

● Descriptive case studies - case studies “not organized around a central, overarching causal hypothesis or theory”.

● Empirical Analysis - is defined as being based on experiment, experience or observation.

● Experiment - defined as “laboratory studies in which investigators retain control over the recruitment, assignment to random conditions, treatment, and measurement of subjects.”

● Falsifiability - is a word coined by Karl Popper, a philosopher of science, and is defined as the ability for a statement to be logically contradicted through empirical testing.

● Hard sciences - such as chemistry, mathematics, and physics, work to advance scientific understanding in the natural or physical sciences.

● Hypothesis - a specific and testable prediction of what you think will happen

● Independent variables (explanatory variables) - the cause, and these variables are independent of other variables under consideration in a study.

● Inductive reasoning - occurs when scientists look at specific situations and attempt to form a hypothesis.

● Inference - is a process of drawing a conclusion about an unobserved phenomenon, based on observed (empirical) information.

● Literature review - a section of your research paper or research process which collects key sources and previous research on your research question and discusses the findings in synthesis with each other.

● Most Different Systems Design (MDSD) - the cases selected for comparison are different from each other, but outcomes are similar in results.

● Most Similar Systems Design (MSSD) - the cases selected for comparison are similar to each other, but outcomes differ in results.

● Non-falsifiable - a question cannot be proven true or false under present circumstances, particularly when such questions are subjective.

● Science - is defined as the systematic and organized approach to any area of inquiry, and utilizes scientific methods to acquire and build a body of knowledge, political science, as well as comparative politics as a subfield of political science, embody the essence of the scientific method and possess deep foundations for the scientific tools and theory formation which align with their areas of inquiry.

● Scientific method - a process by which knowledge is acquired through a sequence of steps, which generally include the following components: question, observation, hypothesis, testing of the hypothesis, analysis of the outcomes, and reporting of the findings.

● Social sciences - which are the fields of inquiry that scientifically study human society and relationships.

● Soft sciences - like psychology, sociology, anthropology and political science, work to advance scientific understanding of human behavior, institutions, society, government, decision making, and power.

● Subnational case study research - when subnational governments, such provincial governments, regional governments, and other local governments often referred to as municipalities, are the cases that are compared.

● Theory - a statement that explains how the world works based on experiences and observation.

● Variable - is a factor or object that can vary or change.

Chapter Three

● Anarchy - defined as a lack of societal structure and order, where there is no established hierarchy of power.

● Absolute monarchy - when the monarch is wholly responsible for all decisions, and rules the state with absolute power over all political, economic and social matters.

● Annex - to take over a region.

● Aristocracy - a form of government where a group of social elites rule the state.

● Authority - defined as having the power to get things done. If we put these two terms together, a state is legitimate in its operations if it has the authority to make decisions and carry out its policy goals.

● Charismatic legitimacy - means that citizens follow the rules of a state based on the charisma and personality of the current leader.

● Civil liberties - defined as individual rights that are protected by law to ensure the government does not unreasonably interfere with certain specific individual rights (e.g. like freedom of speech, religion, assembly, etc.).

● Constitution(s) - a state’s described laws of the land.

● Constitutional monarchy - when a monarch must abide by a state-adopted Constitution, which dictates the scope and depth of its power in all state-related activities.

● Country - defined as a nation, which may have one or more states within it, or may change state-type over time.

● Coup d’etat - an attempt by elites to overthrow the current government of a state through abrupt seizure of power and removal of the government’s leadership.

● Cult of personality - occurs when a state leverages all aspects of a leader’s real and exaggerated traits to solidify the leader’s power.

● Dictatorship - a form of government where one person has sole and absolute power over the state.

● Feudalism - was a system or social order that arose out of the middle ages, particularly in Europe, wherein peasants (sometimes called Serfs) were forced to provide members of the upper class with their crops, produce, goods as well as their services, fealty and loyalty.

● Hard power - the ability to get others to do what you want using physical and potentially aggressive measures, for instance, like fighting, attacking or through war.

● Junta - a regime type where there is a small, military group of elites who rule state activities.

● Legitimacy - defined as the state’s ability to establish itself as a valid power over its citizens.

● Nation - can be broadly defined as a population of people joined by common culture, history, language, ancestry within a designated region of territory.

● Naturalization - the process by which noncitizens formally become citizens of the country they reside in.

● Oligarchy - a form of government where elites rule, though there is not necessarily an assumption of nobility.

● Personalist dictatorships - where power lies with a single, charismatic and all powerful person who drives all actions of the state.

● Political capacity - the ability of a state to use its power, as derived through authority and legitimacy, to get things done and promote its own interests.

● Power - the ability to get others to do what you want them to do.

● Protectorate - an area or nation that is managed, possessed, controlled and protected by a different state.

● Rational-legal legitimacy - occurs when states derive their authority through firmly established, often written and adopted, laws, rules, regulations, procedures through a constitution.

● Regime transitions - occur when a formal government changes to a different government leadership, structure or system.

● Representative democracy - where the people elect representatives to serve on their behalf to make the laws and rules of society.

● Scramble for Africa - sometimes also called the Conquest of Africa, where Western European powers attempted to control and colonize all parts of Africa.

● Social contract - defined as either a formal or informal agreement between the rulers and those ruled in a society.

● Soft power - the ability to get others to do what you want them to do using the methods of persuasion or manipulation.

● State - defined as a national-level group, organization or body which administers its own legal and governmental policies within a designated region or territory.

● Strong states - are those which are able to work their political agendas effectively, to make sure basic political tasks are completed.

● Traditional legitimacy - occurs when states have the authority to lead based on historical precedent.

● Weak states - are those which are unable to perform basic political tasks, and unable to work the political agenda of the authority in charge. Weak states are typically unable to defend their territories and interests.

Chapter Four

● Apartheid - defined as a system of governance wherein racial oppression is institutionalized.

● Aristocracy - a form of government where power is held by nobility or those concerned to be of the highest classes within a society.

● Autocracies - forms of government where countries are ruled either by a single person or group, who/which holds total power and control.

● Ba’athist Party - a former transnational Arab political party that espouses pan-Arab nationalism and socialist economic policies.

● Checks and balances - a system that attempts to ensure that no one branch can become too powerful.

● Congressional legislature - one where groups of legislators, elected by the people, make laws and share powers with other branches within the government.

● Consultative legislature - where the legislature advises the leader, or group of leaders, on issues relating to laws and their application.

● Democracy - a government system in which the supreme power of government is vested in the people.

● Democratic consolidation - a type of regime transition whereby new democracies evolve from fledgling regimes to established democracies, making them less at risk to fall back into authoritarian regimes.

● Direct democracy - a government system that enables citizens to vote directly, or participate directly, in the formation of laws, public policy and government decisions.

● Elections - the mechanism through which leaders get chosen around the world.

● Electoral - an adjective which means relating to elections or electors.

● Electoral democracy - a form of representative democracy where political leaders are elected through an election (electoral) process to exercise political power and manage the basic tasks of government operations.

● Electoral systems - also known as a country's system of voting; an electoral system provides a set of rules that dictate how elections (and other voting initiatives) are conducted and how results are determined and communicated.

● Executive branch - typically made up of a singular leader, a leader with an assistant (vice-president) or a small group of leaders who have institutional powers.

● Fair elections - those in which all votes carry equal weight, are counted accurately, and the election results are able to be accepted by parties. Ideally, the following standards are met to ensure elections are free and fair.

● Free elections - those where all citizens are able to vote for the candidate of their choice. The election is free if all citizens who meet the requirements to vote (e.g. are of lawful age and meet the citizenship requirements, if they exist), are not prevented from participating in the election process.

● Flawed democracies - those where elections are free and fair, and basic civil liberties are protected, but issues exist which may hamper the democratic process.

● Head of government - refers to the chief executives who must run and manage the day-to-day business of the state.

● Head of state - refers to when the chief executive must represent the country in formal gatherings as well as for ceremonial responsibilities.

● Illiberal democracies - those regimes where elections occur, but civil liberties are not protected.

● Indirect democracy - channels the power of the people through representation, where citizens elect representatives to make laws and government decisions on their behalf.

● Judicial review - is the ability to interpret the constitutionality of laws, and in doing so, the ability to overturn decisions made by lesser courts when doing so.

● Judiciary - refers to the part of government where laws can be interpreted and enforced.

● Legislative branch - tasked with performing three main functions: (1) making and revising laws; (2) providing administrative oversight to ensure laws are being properly executed; (3) and providing representation of the constituents to the government.

● No-fly zone - when a foreign power intervenes to prevent that country or another country from gaining air superiority.

● Majoritarian voting system - an electoral system where candidates must win a majority in order to win the election. If they do not win a majority, there needs to be a runoff election.

● Parliamentary legislature - where members are elected by the people, enacts laws on their behalf, and also serves as the executive branch of government.

● Parliamentary system - sometimes called parliamentary democracy, a system of government where the chief executive, usually a Prime Minister, attains their role through election by the legislature.

● Plurality voting system - an electoral system where the candidate who gets the most votes, wins. In this system, there is no requirement to attain a majority, so this system can sometimes be called the first-past-the-post system.

● Political parties - groups of people who are organized under shared values to get their candidates elected to office to exercise political authority.

● Presidential system - a system of government, sometimes called a single executive system, where the head of government is a president who leads the executive branch of government.

● Primitive democracy - small communities have face-to-face discussions in order to make decisions.

● Proportional voting system - an electoral system where voting options reflect geographical or political divisions in the population to enable a proportional leadership when elected.

● Semi-presidential system - sometimes called the dual executive system, a system of government where a country has both a president and a prime minister and cabinet.

● Separation of powers - a term that divides government functions into three areas: the legislature, tasked primarily with the making of laws; the executive, who carries out or enforces these laws; and the judiciary, tasked with interpreting the constitutionality of laws.

● Suffrage - the right to vote in political elections and propose referendums.

● Waves of democracy - moments in history when multiple countries transition to democracy during the same time period.

Chapter Five

● Clientelism - system of exchange in which political elites obtain the political loyalty of clients by distributing resources to clients.

● Corruption - misuse of public resources for private gain.

● Democratic backsliding - when a democracy degrades and becomes more illiberal, authoritarian or autocratic.

● Hybrid regime - non-democratic form of governance that exhibits characteristics of different types of non-democracies.

● Illiberal regime - non-democratic form of governance that presents a façade of liberal institutions.

● Military rule - non-democratic rule by a country’s military elites.

● Monarchy - non-democratic rule by a single individual, with legitimacy typically based in tradition and/or divine right.

● Non-democracy - regimes which deny citizens meaningful institutional channels for making choices about their collective well-being.

● Oligarchy - non-democratic rule by a political elite with control over national wealth and resources.

● Paramilitary - refers to state-affiliated groups with access to military tools and training, usually employed to carry out violence on behalf of the state.

● Patronage networks - refers to social relations that involve the exchange of resources in exchange for loyalty.

● Personalist rule - non-democratic rule by a single individual, with legitimacy typically based in charisma and/or other political authority such as a ruling ideology or tradition.

● Political accountability - institutional channels for holding political leaders responsible for their decisions and actions.

● Political competition - presence of multiple options in political life, for example more than one political party, candidate for office, or policy position.

● Propaganda - biased information meant to convince an audience of a particular perspective or narrative.

● Sharp power - efforts by one country to use information war and diplomatic tactics to undermine the institutions of a target country, often a democracy.

● Single-party rule - non-democratic rule by a political party.

● Theocracy - non-democratic rule by elites who are legitimated by sacred texts.

● Totalitarian regime - non-democratic rule that seeks total control over society by a ruler or political elites.

● Typology - descriptive means to divide a category into sub-categories based on underlying characteristics of items in the category.

Chapter Six

● Arab Spring - a series of protests against oppressive government regions in the Middle East that sometimes resulted in violence.

● Biological sex - refers to “the different biological and physiological characteristics of males and females, such as reproductive organs, chromosomes, hormones, etc.

● Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s - a movement that attempted to ensure equal treatment under the law for Black and African American citizens in the United States.

● Culture - broadly defined, is the combination of customs, social institutions, arts, media, and social, economic, political achievements of a social group.

● Ethnicity - a broader term than race. Used to categorize groups of people according to their own relation to culture.

● Gender - broadly defined as a spectrum of characteristics ranging from feminine to masculine, and gender tends to have more to do with how a person wants to identify.

● January 6th 2021 United States Capitol Attack - an event in the United States where approximately 2,000- 2,500 supporters of then President Donald Trump attacked the Capitol Building in Washington D.C. with the intent of overturning the 2020 election results where Joseph Biden won the presidency.

● Norms - defined as standard practices, rules, patterns and behaviors that are considered acceptable in a society.

● Parochialism - a system where citizens are not involved, engaged, or remotely aware of the political operations in their country.

● Participant system - a system where citizens are aware of government actions, are able to influence and participate in governmental decisions, and at the same time, they must abide by the laws and rules of the government.

● Political identity - how a person or group of persons think of themselves in relation to the politics and government of a country.

● Political mobilization - defined as organized activities intended to motivate groups of participants to take political action on a particular issue.

● Political socialization - the process in which our political beliefs are formed over time.

● Postmaterialism - the extent to which a political culture focuses or cares about issues which are not of immediate physical and material concern, like human rights and environmental concerns.

● Race - defined “a category of humankind that shares certain distinctive physical traits.”

● Sex-selective abortion - a practice of terminating a pregnancy once the sex of the infant is known.

● Sexual orientation - defined as the sustained pattern of romantic and/or sexual attraction to people of opposite sex or gender, same sex or gender, or to both.

● Society - broadly defined, refers to a population which has organized itself based on shared ideas for how the world acts and should act through both formal and informal institutions.

● Subject system - a system where citizens are somewhat aware and responsive of their governmental systems, and at the same time, heavily controlled and legislated by their governments.

● Trust - the extent to which citizens believe in the reliability, validity, or truth of their government and their fellow citizens, plays a significant role in political outcomes.

● Women’s suffrage - the right of women to vote in elections, over 180 countries now allow women to vote in some capacity.

Chapter Seven

● Behaving - religious commitment, or behaving according to values privileged by religion.

● Believing - religious belief or believing in certain religious propositions.

● Belonging - religious affiliation, or belonging to a religious faith, a religious tradition, or a denomination/sect within a particular religion.

● Bonding - religious ritual, or bonding by means of spiritual practices and rituals. These are the experiences that people go through, either individually, but more likely together as a community.

● Citizenship - implies a legal status rather than a feeling of belonging. Different from national or political identity.

● Class Identity - how a person or group of persons think of themselves based on economic and/or social status.

● Conscription - an enrollment program that requires young men, and in a few cases young women, to compulsory enlist in their militaries through a draft.

● Constructivist identity - the idea that people have multiple identities and that as people change, so can either the importance of a particular identity, or the adoption of a new identity altogether.

● Elites - the upper socio-economic class with consequential political power and social capital.

● Elite theory - the idea that the elite not only have power, but that they intentionally use it for their own benefit.

● Exclusionary nationalism - a form of nationalism that includes certain people and either implicitly or explicitly excludes others.

● Four B’s of religious identity - believing, belonging, behaving, and bonding.

● Hyperpluralist society - a society with many groups, but groups whose priorities are so divergent as to make finding compromise and agreement on shared values with others in society unachievable.

● Identity politics - refers to the “tendency for people of a particular religion, race, social background, etc., to form exclusive political alliances, moving away from traditional broad-based party politics.”

● Intersectionality - a situation where the interconnectedness of various identities and categories can lead to the marginalization or to the privilege of particular people and/or groups.

● Irredentism - when one state wants a territory that previously belonged to it to rejoin it.

● Liberal nationalism - the idea that every group of people with a clear national identity should have their own state.

● Marxism - an approach to political economy that is based on the idea of class conflict - between the owner and worker classes.

● Multinational state - a state that contains multiple nations.

● National identity - how a person or group of persons think of themselves as belonging to and representing the values and traits of a nation.

● Nationalism - defined as an ideology where devotion and loyalty to one’s state proves more important than other interests.

● Nation-state - a state where all or most of the people in that state belong to a single nation.

● Patriotism - described as pride in one’s state.

● Pluralist society - a society with many identity groups, with different backgrounds, religions and traditions, but where an overarching identity exists that can include everyone living within the country.

● Primordial identity - the idea that one’s identity is fixed at birth. A religious identity that claims to predate the religion itself.

● Religious identity - how a person or group of persons think of themselves as belonging to and representing the values of a particular religion and/or religious sect.

● Religiosity - the strength of a person’s commitment to religion.

● Separatist movements - defined as attempts by members of a group of people who seek to establish their own government, separate from the country they reside in.

● Social capital - defined as having connections and access to networks of other elites so as to increase one’s influence beyond just economic resources.

● Socioeconomic class - defined as the combination of social factors, such as level of education and occupation.

● Veil of ignorance - a hypothetical system where people are asked to make policy decisions without knowing who would be affected. The argument is that people would create fair policies, without respect to class, race, ethnicity, religion, etc.

● Working class - defined as those engaged in manual-labor occupations or industrial work. Often, members of the working class are without a four-year college degree.

Chapter Eight

● Bourgeoisie - a term that refers to the upper middle classes, who often own most of a society’s wealth and means of production.

● Capitalism - also referred to as free market capitalism, is a political-economic system where individuals and private entities are able to own land and capital needed to produce goods and services.

● Command and control - defined as a type of political economy where the government owns most, if not all, means of production in a society.

● Communism - where the state, usually dominated by one party, is in complete control of the political economic system, including all property.

● Comparative advantage - refers to the goods, services or activities that one state can produce or provide more cheaply or easily than other states.

● Comparative political economy (CPE) - defined as the comparison across and between countries of the ways in which politics and economics interact.

● Competition - occurs when industries, economic firms and individuals vie to obtain goods, products and services at the lowest prices.

● Cultural Revolution - a socio-political and economic movement that sought to expel capitalists and promote the Communist ideology.

● Democratic socialism - seeks democracy not just in the political sphere but in the economic sphere as well.

● Economic growth - the process by which a country’s wealth increases over time.

● Economic liberalism - defined as a political economic ideology that promotes free market capitalism through deregulation, privatization and the loosening of government controls.

● Economic nationalism - defined as attempts by a state to protect or bolster its economy for nationalist goals.

● Economic structuralism - defined as a political economic system wherein the working class must be protected from exploitation of the capital owning class, but on an international scale.

● Economies of scale - the ability to “produce goods at a lower average cost”

● Fair competition - in capitalism affirms that industries will work to maximize their output and minimize costs to compete with similar industries, forcing the market to provide competitive options to consumers.

● Fiscal policy - collectively refers to a country’s systems of taxation, spending, and regulation.n

● Great Leap Forward - a plan which asked the Chinese people to spontaneously increase production in all sectors of the economy at the same time.

● Import-substitution industrialization (ISI) - refers to a country's attempt to reduce its dependence on foreign companies through increased domestic production.

● Inflation - defined as a general increase in prices, usually within a given time.

● Informal sector - also known as the informal economy, is that part of the economy consisting of people producing goods and providing services outside of regular employment.

● International political economy (IPE) - defined as the study of political economy from a global perspective or through international institutions.

● International trade - defined as the exchange of goods, services, and activities between countries.

● Laissez-faire - defined as a type of political system where the government chooses not to interfere or intervene in its national economy.

● Market - defined as the exchange of goods and services within a given territory.

● Marxism - defined as a political economic system wherein the means of production are collectively owned by workers, not privately owned by individuals.

● Mercantilism - defined as a political economic system which seeks to maximize a country’s wealth through increasing exports and limiting imports.

● Monetary policy - defined as the actions taken by a state’s central bank to affect the money supply.

● Non tariff regulatory barriers - restrictions on trade not involving a tariff or a quota.

● Private goods - defined as an economic resource which are acquired or owned exclusively by a person or group.

● Property - defined as a resource or commodity that a person or group legally owns.

● Property rights - defined as the legal authority to dictate how property, whether tangible or intangible, is used or managed.

● Protectionism - defined as policies protecting a country’s domestic industry through subsidies, favorable tax treatment, or imposing tariffs on foreign competitors.

● Public goods - defined as goods and services provided by the state that are available for everyone in society; are nonexcludable and nonrival in nature.

● Purchasing Parity Power (PPP) - a metric used to compare the prices of goods and services to gauge the absolute purchasing power of a currency.

● Quotas - limits on the number of foreign goods coming into a country.

● Recession - defined as two consecutive quarters (three months) of declining economic activity.

● Regulation - defined as rules imposed by a government on society.

● Self-interest - the means through which individuals can act on their own behalf to make choices that benefit themselves.

● Sin taxes - taxes levied on a product or activity that are deemed harmful to society.

● Social democracy - defined as a political and economic system that favors heavy market regulation to achieve a more equal society.

● Social market economy - is a socioeconomic system that combines principles of capitalism with domestic social welfare considerations.

● State capitalism - where a high level of state intervention exists in a market economy, usually through state-owned enterprises (SOEs).

● Statism - defined as a political economic system where the government often takes on an enterprising role, usually through a state.

● Tariffs - taxes imposed on imported foreign products with the purpose of making those products more expensive

● Taxation - defined as the process of a government collecting money from its citizens, corporations, and other entities.

● Versailles Treaty - treaty which ended the first World War.

● Wealth distribution - defined as how a country’s goods, investments, properties, and resources, or wealth, are divided amongst its population.

● Zero-sum game - a situation where one person, or entity, gains at the equal cost of another.

Chapter Nine

● Collective action - Any activity in which coordination by and across individuals has the potential to lead to achievement of a common objective.

● Common pool resource - Something provided to some or all in a society; it is nonexcludable but rivalrous in consumption.

● Cooperation game - A strategic scenario illustrating how players have incentives to work together or not work together to realize common goals.

● Diffusion - The spread of an idea, movement, tactics, strategies, and other resources across international borders.

● Framing - The deliberate representation of a concept or problem to resonate with intended audiences.

● Free rider problem- Occurs when an individual who seeks to benefit from the gains achieved by others but does not contribute to the achievement of those gains.

● Information and communication technologies (ICT) - Platforms which provide the means for members of a social movement to communicate with one another and intended audiences. ICTs can include radio, television, social media platforms, and so forth.

● Social movement - A subset of collective action in which a group of people outside of established political institutions organize to achieve an objective.

● Structure - Social forces which constrain the choices available to an individual or group at a given time; the broader social context within which action takes place.

Chapter Ten

● Afrobarometer - a public opinion survey focused on surveying people in countries across the African continent.

● Agents of socialization - different factors that have helped mold who we are today, and our political views.

● AmericasBarometer (LAPOP) - a public opinion organization focused on surveying people in countries across North, Central, South American and Caribbean regions.

● Arab Barometer - a public opinion survey focused on surveying people in countries across the Middle East and North Africa.

● Asian Barometer - a public opinion survey focused on surveying people in countries across the Asian continent.

● Barometer - another, more general term, for a survey.

● Comparative National Elections Project (CNEP) - a partnership of scholars who conduct election surveys on five continents.

● Comparative public opinion - the research and analysis of public opinion across two more countries.

● Eurasia Barometer - a public opinion survey focused on surveying people in countries across eastern Europe and Central Asia.

● Focus group - a small subset of individuals that are exposed to a treatment of some kind and then are asked about their impressions of that treatment.

● Framing effects - an effect that could influence a respondent’s answer by how the question is presented.

● Latino Barometer - a public opinion survey focused on surveying people in Latin American countries.

● Margin of error - a statistical estimation of the accuracy of one’s sample.

● Priming effects - questions that have a respondent thinking about a certain subject matter they may have not been normally thinking about or thinking about at that time.

● Public opinion poll - a random sample of subjects from a broader pool of citizens who are interviewed and whose answers are used to make inferences on that larger body.

● Public opinion - the views and opinions of the public at large.

● Representative sample - a sample that has all the same features and elements at the same proportions of the larger body.

● Survey - a set of questions that asks individuals, known as respondents, to share their beliefs, attitudes, and views on policy and political issues or individuals.

● Survey questions - included in surveys and consist of questions with multiple choice, true/false, and open-ended response options.

● World Values Survey (WVS) - an international research program devoted to the scientific and academic study of social, political, economic, religious and cultural values of people in the world.

Chapter Eleven

● Assistance model of state-sponsored terrorism - when a state tacitly supports and encourages terrorist actions in other countries.

● Caliphate - a political arrangement where the government is ruled based on the idea of Islamic rules.

● Civil war (political science definition) - a conflict between a rebel group and the government who are politically and militarily organized with stated political objectives that take place in the territory of a state that is a member of the international system with a population of at least 500,000.

● Civil war (simple definition) - an armed conflict between two or more groups where one of the combatants is the government.

● Consent-based (traditional) peacekeepers - peacekeepers that have been invited by the belligerents.

● Counterinsurgency - defined as a government’s efforts to reduce and/or mitigate political violence instigated by insurgents.

● Counterterrorism policies - government’s efforts to prevent terrorism from occurring.

● Covert repression as policy - actions undertaken by secret police services, or domestic intelligence agencies to enforce repressive policy.

● Existential threat - a threat to the existence of the state itself.

● External sponsored political violence - when a government uses violence against foreign citizens, usually in neighboring countries.

● External threat - a threat determined to be outside the borders of a country.

● Grievance explanation - says that political violence along communal lines is jointly a product of deep-seated grievances about the status of the group and the situationally motivated political interests that various political actors desire to pursue.

● Guerilla warfare - a type of military conflict where small, lightly armed bands engage in guerrilla warfare from a rural base that targets the state.

● Indiscriminate violence - defined as the use of violence that is random in nature.

● Insurgency - an act of uprising or revolt against a government and/or the state.

● Internal sponsored political violence - when a government uses violence against its own citizens.

● Internal threat - a threat determined to be within the borders of a country.

● Intrastate political violence - political violence that wholly or largely occurs within a state or country.

● Jummas (hill people) - a group of ethnically distinct tribes living in the Chittagong Hill Tracts area, so named due to their particular crop cultivation method of slash and burn.

● Kurds - an ethnic group, speaking a Indo-Iranian language, native to the mountainous region of Kurdistan.

● Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) - the name of the Kurdish insurgency movement in Southwestern Turkey.

● Lootable resources - defined as accessible natural resources, such as oil, minerals and precious metals that can confer wealth on those who own, mine or transport them.

● Low-intensity conflict (LIC) - is defined as a level of hostilities or use of military power that falls short of a full‐scale conventional or general war.

● Monopoly on the use of violence - only the state and its institutions, such as the police or the military, have the authority to use violence, when necessary.

● Negotiated settlements - defined as successful discussions between combatants where an agreement is reached to end political violence.

● Non-state actors - political actors not associated with a government.

● Nonviolence movements - defined as movements that engage in nonviolent practices to accomplish political goals. Tactics can include protests, boycotts, sit-ins, and civil disobedience.

● Overt repression as policy - state repression through official state policy.

● Patronage model of state-sponsored terrorism - when a state actively participates and encourages terrorist actions in other countries.

● Peacebuilding - defined as the implementation of structures to promote sustainable peace.

● Peace enforcement missions - occur when consent is not required or peacekeeping forces were not invited by the belligerents.

● Peacekeeping forces - refer “to the deployment of national or, more commonly, multinational forces for the purpose of helping to control and resolve an actual or potential armed conflict between or within states”.

● Physical violence - the use of physical force to exert power.

● Political violence - the use of physical harm is motivated by political intentions.

● Psychological explanation of terrorism - the idea that the violence itself is the desired outcome as opposed to being the means to the end.

● Rational choice explanation of terrorism - the idea that the use of terrorism is a result of a willful strategy based on a careful political calculation.

● Rebellion - an act of violently challenging the government or existing ruler in order to bring attention to the status quo with which the challengers are dissatisfied.

● Responsibility to Protect (R2P) - if a state refuses to protect its own citizens, then other states are expected to intervene in the state where abuses are occurring.

● Revolution - is a public seizure of the state in order to overturn the existing government and regime.

● Secession - defined as the act of formal withdrawal or separation from a political entity, usually a state.

● Selective violence - when a government only targets active participants in the war and/or those who commit political violence.

● Spoilers - disaffected individuals who may disagree with a negotiated settlement and prefer political violence to peace.

● State-sponsored political violence - characterized as “official government support for policies of violence, repression, and intimidation”.

● State-sponsored terrorism - government support for terrorist actions in other states.

● Terrorism - defined as a violent act that generally targets noncombatants for political purposes.

● Third-party guarantor - defined as an external force that can enforce the provisions of a negotiated settlement.

● Transnational - defined as “events, activities, ideas, trends, processes and phenomena that appear across national boundaries and cultural regions”.

● Transnational political violence - defined as political violence that occurs across different countries or crosses state borders.

● Violence - the deliberate infliction of harm on people.

Chapter Twelve

● Bretton Woods System - a conference held in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire in 1044 to arrange and manage international economic relations after World War II.

● Brexit - the term used to describe the UK’s decision to leave the European Union.

● Bureaucratic authoritarianism - the management of a country through a strong bureaucratic organization that excludes the popular will of the people, and where decisions are made by technocrats, or subject matter experts.

● Digital immigrants - people who did not grow up with today’s technology.

● Digital natives - people who were raised with technology.

● Economic marginalization - an environment where workers feel like they have no control over their economics, and to a lesser extent, their lives.

● Free trade - the unregulated trade of goods and services between countries, usually through the reduction of import and export controls.

● Foreign direct investment (FDI) - the domestic investment by a foreign company, where the investment can be in the form of exports, the building of a production plant in the host country, an acquisition of a domestic company, or a joint venture.

● Fragmentation - understood as the fracturing of established orders, be they political, economic, or cultural.

● Geopolitics - defined as the study of the geographical aspects of political phenomena.

● Global governance - the collective efforts of the world’s countries to find lasting solutions to global problems through the constellation of international institutions.

● Global imaginary - refers to people’s growing consciousness of global connectivity, where people think of themselves as global citizens first.

● Globalization - an overarching international system shaping the domestic politics and foreign relations of virtually every country. Defined by Steger as growing worldwide interconnectivity.

● Glocalization - defined by Steger as the “thickening of the global-local nexus”.

● Great Unsettling - earlier ways of acting and knowing that have been upended through globalization, causing uneasiness among people.

● Immigrants - migrants who willingly and legally left their home countries to work and live in another country.

● Intentional migration - migrants who choose to move from one place to another.

● Internally displaced people (IDPs) - unintentional migrants who have not crossed a border to find safety.

● International institutions - bodies of authority above the state that codify, maintain and sometimes enforce, sets of rules that govern state behavior.

● International Monetary Fund (IMF) - an international institution that manages the global monetary system and provides loans to countries that experience a currency crisis.

● Internet - an interconnected global computer network that allows for communication and information sharing that rose to prominence in the 1990s.

● Leftist-populism - characterized by a combination of populism with some form of socialism. In leftist-populism, the ‘worker’ needs protection from globalization.

● Market globalism - Steger defines it as a discourse where a “self-regulating market…serves as the framework for a future global order.”

● Migrants - people who move from one place to another, usually between countries.

● Multilateralism - the formal cooperation between three or more states on a particular issue.

● National-populism - characterized by a combination of right-wing populism with nationalism. In national-populism, the ‘nation’ needs protection from globalization.

● Neoliberalism - the driving ideology in contemporary globalization. It promotes free-market capitalist principles worldwide.

● Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) - private, voluntary organizations that unite, usually for action on specific issues.

● Populism - denunciation of the elites in a country and the idea that politics should be an expression of the general will.

● Refugee - a person who is outside his/her country of nationality or habitual residence who has a well-founded fear of persecution because of his/her race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group.

● Sojourners - migrants who temporarily live in a place & return to their home country. This included international & study abroad students and also temporary labor.

● Supranational - where member-states agree to give up or share sovereignty on particular issue areas. The European Union (EU) is an example.

● Temporary asylee - a person who intends to stay in a new place for a brief time, but is subsequently unable to return home.

● Unintentional migration - migrants who do not choose to move from one place to another.

● Washington Consensus - the collective efforts of the World Bank, the IMF, the WTO to promote neoliberalism. So named because the World Bank and the IMF are headquartered in Washington, DC.

● World Bank - an international institution that provides loans and financial assistance to developing countries, primarily by funding industrial projects.

● World Trade Organization (WTO) - an international institution that supervises the trade agreements between countries, with the aim of promoting free trade.