Glossary

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Katherine Michel
Ohlone College

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Chapter 1

Bipolar distribution of power occurs when there are two centers of power (states or blocs of states) with roughly equal influence in the international system.
Charismatic legitimacy occurs when citizens follow the rules of a state based on the charisma and personality of the current leader.
Country is a term often used colloquially to refer to what political scientists call a “state,” but it is less precise as it can encompass aspects of both the nation and the state.
Distribution of power is the allocation of authority and influence among states in the international system (that is, whether power is evenly distributed or concentrated among one or a few states).
Empirical, in terms of research in international relations, means based on measurable experiences, usually through observation or experimentation, and aiming to explain how the world actually works.
External sovereignty is the ability of a state to manage its affairs independently from outside interference.
Government is the group of people in charge of running a state.
Hegemon is the dominant superpower within a unipolar distribution of power (note that there can also be regional hegemons).
Internal sovereignty is the ability of a state to deflect internal resistance.
International relations is a subfield of political science that focuses on interactions that cross borders.
Legitimacy is the state’s ability to establish itself as a valid power over its citizens.
Multipolar distribution of power occurs when three or more states hold roughly similar amounts of power in the international system.
Nation is broadly defined as a population of people joined by common culture, history, language, and/or ancestry within a designated region or territory.
Normative, in terms of research in international relations, means built on principles and assumptions about how social interactions should occur, and aiming to explain how the world should work.
Political regime is the set of rules that structures access to political power within a state, which is typically institutionalized through a state’s constitution.
Rational-legal legitimacy occurs when states derive their authority through firmly established laws, rules, regulations, and procedures.
State is a central authority that has the ability to make and enforce laws, rules, and decisions within a specified territory.
Traditional legitimacy occurs when states have the authority to lead based on historical precedent.
Unipolar distribution of power occurs when one state acts as the dominant superpower in the international system.

Chapter 2

Berlin Conference was a series of negotiations among non-African rulers (extending from November 15, 1884 to February 26, 1885) that legalized the partition of Africa and, in doing so, accelerated the pace of colonization.
Collective security is an arrangement where countries agree to defend each other against any aggressor.
Colonialism is the settlement of people from a colonizing nation within territories inhabited by indigenous populations, typically carried out in conjunction with imperial expansion and the assertion of political and economic control.
Concert of Europe describes the geopolitical order in Europe during the nearly 100-year period of relative peace after Napoleon’s defeat in 1815 until the beginning of World War I in 1914, characterized by agreement to maintain the existing balance of power among the so-called “great powers.”
Congress of Vienna is a landmark diplomatic gathering (1814-15) among representatives of Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia that aimed to reshape Europe, restore order, and prevent future upheaval in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars.
Globalization is the acceleration and intensification of global interconnectivity, interdependence, and integration processes.
Hyperinflation is when there is a rapid increase in the price of goods and services, usually measured as exceeding 50% in a given month.
Imperialism is the expansion of authority over territories and their residents, usually distant, typically achieved through military conquest.
Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) is where each side in a conflict has enough nuclear weapons to completely destroy the other.
Nation is a population of people joined by common culture, history, language, and/or ancestry within a designated region or territory.
Nationalism, according to Britannica, is “an ideology that elevates one nation or nationality above all others and that places primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests as opposed to those of other nations, nationalities, or supranational groups.”
Peace of Westphalia, consisting of two main treaties, formally ended the Thirty Years’ War in 1648, enshrining the concept of sovereignty in the international system.
Proxy war is an armed conflict where major powers support opposing sides through funding, weapons, or training, rather than fighting directly themselves.
Realpolitik is an approach in foreign policy based on practical and pragmatic objectives, rather than moral or ethical objectives.
Scramble for Africa was an era in which European powers divided the African continent through conquest and conflict.
Second-strike capability is a situation in which each side in a conflict has nuclear weapons that could survive a first strike, thereby disincentivizing a surprise attack.
Sovereignty is the principle that each state is fundamentally equal in legal terms and free to act independently without the consent of any higher authority.
Total war is a form of war in which an entire society becomes involved in the conflict. Civilians, industries, and national resources are directed toward the war effort.

Chapter 3

Alliance is “a formal agreement between two or more states for mutual support in case of war” (Britannica).
Anarchy is the absence of a central (world) government that regulates the interactions between states.
Balance of power is when states act to prevent any one state or coalition from becoming too dominant.
Balancing is when a state joins other states to oppose a stronger power that it views as a threat.
Bandwagoning, or joining forces, is when a state aligns itself with a stronger power (to gain some benefit, such as protection or resources).
Deterrence is any strategy used to prevent an adversary from taking an undesirable action.
Hegemon is a state that dominates in the international system.
Hegemonic Stability Theory is a theory arguing that the overwhelming dominance of a hegemon allows that state to set and enforce the “rules of the game” in the international system, thereby promoting stability and cooperation.
National interest refers to the goals and objectives of a sovereign state.
Rational actor is a realist assumption that the state, a unitary actor (see definition below), makes decisions based on its self-interest, aiming to maximize benefits and minimize costs.
Realism is a theory that explains state behavior and the configuration of the international system based on the distribution of power and the current non-hierarchical world order.
Relative gains refer to the amount that one state gains in comparison to other states.
Security dilemma occurs when one state’s efforts to increase its security—such as expanding its military or forming alliances—causes other states to perceive this buildup as a threat. This perception then leads to an arms race or a cycle of escalating tensions, even when no state intends to initiate conflict.
Self-help system is one in which states must rely on their own capabilities—military, economic, or otherwise—if they wish to ensure their survival.
Sovereignty is a principle under which each state is fundamentally equal in legal terms and free to act independently without the consent of any higher authority.
Theory is a well-substantiated framework that explains observable phenomena based on hypotheses, evidence, and thorough testing.
Unitary actor is a realist assumption that the state is a single entity that speaks with one voice.
Zero-sum means a situation in which a gain for one side entails a corresponding loss for the other side.

Chapter 4

Absolute gains refer to the total amount of benefits that all parties gain (without focusing on the relative distribution of those benefits).
Complex interdependence is a theory that emphases the importance of the interconnectedness and mutual dependence between actors (both state and non-state), such as the multiple ways through which cultural, economic, and political relationships may connect states.
Democratic Peace Theory asserts that democratic states do not go to war with one another.
Liberalism is a theory that explains state behavior and the configuration of the international system by emphasizing the mutual benefits of cooperation and international institutions.
Positive-sum means a situation in which all sides can gain.
Reciprocity is the principle that states respond to the actions of other states in kind.

Chapter 5

Agency is the ability for a person to act.
Bourgeoisie is a group of people who are the owners of capital, such as land, factories, and other means of production.
Critical theories are a set of theories of international relations that challenge traditional views on world politics.
Constructivism is a theory of international relations that argues that international politics is socially constructed.
Feminism is a social and political philosophy that, in the context of international relations, centers gender as a consideration in politics.
Gender is socially constructed behaviors and expectations that are assigned to men and women.
Ideational structure is the distribution of ideas and knowledge in the international system, according to constructivism.
Identity is a representation of an actor’s understanding of who they are, which in turn signals their interests.
Intersectionality is the overlapping and interaction of multiple identities with one another that often provide advantages or disadvantages for individuals or groups holding those identities.
Historical materialism is a Marxist theory of history that explains how economic activity shapes political and social conditions.
Marxism is a political, economic, and social philosophy that, in the context of international relations, holds that economic factors shape relations between states.
Material Structure is the distribution of physical capabilities in the international system, according to constructivism.
Proletariat is a group of people who provide their labor in exchange for wages.
Relations of production is the Marxist view that two groups are connected in the production of goods and services, often in an opposing fashion.
Social norms are standards of appropriate behavior for actors with a given identity.
Structure is the context in which a person acts, including the material and ideational structures of the international system.
World Systems Theory is a multidisciplinary framework that analyzes the world as a system made up of three interdependent groups: the core, the semi-periphery, and the periphery.

Chapter 6

Bilateralism is when two states decide to work together to address a foreign policy problem or address a collective goods issue.
Bureaucratic politics model is a foreign policy process primarily driven by conflict resolution, rather than problem-solving, among multiple actors within a government.
Cultural diplomacy is a strategic approach that leverages the exchange of ideas, values, traditions, and other cultural elements to foster relationships, enhance socio-cultural collaboration, and promote national interests.
Diaspora refers to a population that resides in states outside of their ancestral or historical homeland, but maintains cultural, linguistic, or social ties to their origins.
Diplomacy is the practice by which states seek to influence the actions and policies of other states through negotiation, bargaining, and strategic communication.
Diplomats are individuals designated by a national government to represent its interests; engage in official negotiations; and manage political, economic, and social relations with foreign states.
Domestic policy refers to the set of decisions and actions undertaken by a government that directly impact the lives of people within its borders.
Economic power refers to a state’s ability to leverage financial incentives or impose economic restrictions to influence and secure conformity with its objectives.
Foreign policy is “the sum of official external relations conducted by an independent actor (usually a state) in international relations.”
Hard power involves a state’s use of its available power resources to compel other states into aligning with its interests through coercive means.
International organization (IO) is a formal international institution, created by and composed of states, in which representatives relay their government’s interests in independent governing bodies.
Internationalism, at its extreme, is when a state fully engages within global systems and is interdependent with other states in these systems.
Isolationism, at its extreme, is when a state fully disengages with global systems and retreats into self-sufficiency., at its extreme, is when a state fully disengages with global systems and retreats into self-sufficiency.
Less than vital interests are not a state’s core interests or conditions, and these interests are (at least to some extent) negotiable.
Military power encompasses the use or threat of armed force as a means for a state to pursue and achieve its strategic objectives.
Multilateralism is the predisposition for a state to act in unison with other states and/or organizations, forgoing individual action.
Multinational corporations (MNCs) are for-profit organizations with financial activities outside of their home state’s borders.
National interest is the core principles and aims of a state’s foreign policy.
Non-governmental organizations are organizations that operate independently of a government, with private and voluntary membership.
Power potential is each state’s capability to promote or secure its national interests, determined by the resources it can utilize to exert influence.
Public diplomacy is the strategic use of media and cultural programming to influence foreign publics and their elites.
Rational actor model is a foreign policy process that operates on an action-reaction dynamic, where foreign policy is a deliberate response to the behaviors and decisions of other actors.
Religious diplomacy is a strategic approach that leverages the moral authority and legitimacy of religious leaders, institutions, or values to foster dialogue and resolve conflicts.
Small group decision-making model is a foreign policy process that focuses on the dynamics of a small, often informal, circle of individuals, rather than a large bureaucracy.
Smart power is a combination of hard power and soft power approaches.
Soft power is the ability of a state to influence other actors by encouraging them to adopt its preferred actions, values, or policies through persuasion and the perceived legitimacy of its conduct.
Track One diplomacy refers to formal diplomatic efforts by diplomats who represent the official positions of their government.
Track Two diplomacy refers to informal diplomatic efforts by individuals outside of the government, such as academics, leaders of civil society groups, corporate executives, and/or media professionals.
Unilateralism is the predisposition for a state to act alone when it comes to solving a problem or protecting its interests.
Vital interests are a state’s core interests or conditions, considered vital to national sovereignty and security, that are non-negotiable.

Chapter 7

Air Force is the branch of the military that conducts operations in the air, including bombing and surveillance.
Army is the branch of a nation’s military responsible for land operations, including infantry, armor, and artillery.
Biological weapons are weapons that use living organisms or toxins to spread disease among humans, animals, or crops.
Chemical weapons are toxic substances designed to harm or kill through poisoning or chemical reactions. Their use is banned under international law.
Cyber warfare is the use of digital attacks to damage or disrupt another state’s information systems, infrastructure, or networks.
Guerrilla warfare is a type of unconventional warfare in which small forces use the local terrain to conduct ambushes, hit-and-run attacks, and sabotage against an opponent.
Interstate war is armed conflict between states. These wars involve militaries and are often fought over territory, power, or political control.
Intrastate war is armed conflict within a state, often between the government and organized groups such as rebels or separatists.
Jus ad bellum, in Just War Theory, is the criteria for a “just war,” such as requiring a just cause like self-defense or protecting the innocent, authorization by a legitimate political authority, and that war should only be used as a last resort.
Jus in bello, in Just War Theory, is the rules for conduct in war, such as limiting violence, protecting civilians, and using proportional force rather than indiscriminate destruction.
Navy is the branch of the military that operates at sea, protecting shipping lanes and projecting power through ships and submarines.
Nuclear weapons are explosive devices powered by atomic reactions. Their immense destructive power and long-term radiation effects make them central to global security debates.
Proxy war is an armed conflict where major powers support opposing sides through funding, weapons, or training, rather than fighting directly themselves.
Total war is a form of war in which an entire society becomes involved in the conflict. Civilians, industries, and national resources are directed toward the war effort.

Chapter 8

Autogolpe (self-coup) refers to actions taken by an elected leader to avoid losing power, such as dissolving legislatures, suspending constitutions, or using security forces to remain in office.
Civil war is an armed conflict occurring within a state between a government and organized domestic challengers.
Clientelism is a form of political control in which leaders maintain the status quo by distributing benefits, positions, or resources to loyal individuals or groups in exchange for continued support.
Coup d’état occurs when political elites or members of the armed forces remove a government through force, the threat of force, or other unconstitutional means, most commonly where civilian control of the military is weak.
Ethnic cleansing is the deliberate removal of a population from a territory through violence or forced displacement, often aimed at undermining support for rival factions or altering control over territory.
Ethnic outbidding is a process in which leaders within an ethnic group adopt increasingly extreme positions or use violence to present themselves as the only authentic representatives of that group, especially when moderates are discredited for cooperating with the state.
Guerrilla warfare refers to tactics commonly used by insurgent groups, including ambushes, sabotage, and hit-and-run attacks, designed to offset the military advantages of the state.
Insurgency is a prolonged effort by a non-state group to challenge state authority by combining armed violence with the political mobilization of a population, often seeking to weaken state control over territory rather than immediately overthrow the government.
Militia is a locally organized armed group that operates in areas where state authority is weak, controlling towns or provinces, and may enforce local rules or provide security.
Political regime is the combination of norms, laws, and institutions that structure political authority and determine how power is exercised within a state.
Resource curse describes the tendency of resource-rich but weak states to experience instability and conflict, as access to valuable resources makes political power highly contested and enables both governments and rebel groups to finance violence.
Revolution is a fundamental transformation of political authority involving the overthrow of an existing regime and lasting change to political institutions, rather than simply replacing leaders.
Secessionist conflict is a form of intrastate conflict in which a group seeks to break away from an existing state in order to form a new, independent state, often driven by ethnic, religious, or regional grievances tied to territory.
Terrorism involves acts committed by non-state actors against non-combatants for a political motive, often used strategically to provoke reactions, gain attention, or force concessions.
Warlord is a leader who uses armed force to maintain personal power, control resources, and secure loyalty from local populations, often providing protection and services in exchange for support, with authority based on coercion and local influence rather than state authority.
Weapons of the weak are everyday forms of resistance used by oppressed populations, including work slowdowns, sabotage, or refusal to comply with state directives.

Chapter 9

Civil society is the arena in which groups come together to engage in collective action in the service of shared interests, values, and goals outside government or profit-based motivations.
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) is a UN organ that acts as a primary driver of global governance policy dealing with economic and social issues.
European Union (EU) is a supranational organization comprising 27 member states.
Functionalism is the idea that cooperation on small, specific policy areas such as coordinating postal services or air traffic control can create mutual trust and evolve into cooperation on larger, more complex issues.
International Court of Justice (ICJ), sometimes referred to as the World Court and headquartered in The Hague, is the official court of the United Nations that hears disputes between states.
International governmental organization (IGO), also referred to as an intergovernmental organization, is an organization with membership that includes only states.
International organization (IO) is a group whose members include governments, institutions, or individuals from different states.
International nongovernmental organization (INGO) is a nongovernmental organization that either works at the international level or has international members.
Resolutions, within the UN Security Council, are formal expressions of the opinion or will of UN organs that must receive nine out of 15 votes to pass (and must not be vetoed by any permanent member).
Supranational organization is an international organization in which member states give up some of their decision-making power to a higher authority that can make binding rules for them.
United Nations (UN) is an IGO with almost universal state membership, established in 1945 after the end of World War II.
UN General Assembly is the main policymaking organ of the UN, in which all member-states enjoy an equal vote. is the main policymaking organ of the UN, in which all member-states enjoy an equal vote.
UN Security Council is the most powerful organ within the UN, consisting of 15 members, with five permanent members (“the P5”) who hold veto power and ten rotating members.
UN Secretariat is an organ that acts as the executive branch, running the UN and its programs on a daily basis, and headed by the Secretary-General.
UN Secretary-General, elected by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council, heads the Secretariat.
Veto power, in the UN Security Council, is the ability for any permanent member (China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, United States) to unilaterally block any resolution.

Chapter 10

Boomerang pattern is a strategy facilitated by transnational activist networks in which domestic non-governmental organizations directly seek international allies to try to bring pressure on their states from outside. This typically occurs when governments, often within authoritarian regimes, are unwilling to directly engage with domestic activists.
Customary international law refers to law that arises from patterns of behavior in states (Wex).
Hard law refers to legally binding obligations that are precise and that delegate authority for interpreting, implementing, and resolving disputes about the law.
International Court of Justice (ICJ), sometimes referred to as the World Court and headquartered in The Hague, is the official court of the United Nations that hears disputes between states.
International law is “a set of rules and principles governing the relations and conduct of sovereign states with each other, as well as with international organizations and individuals” (Wex).
Laws of peace regulate peaceful relations and include such subject matters as international treaty law, the law of diplomatic and consular relations, international organization law, the law of the sea, international environmental law, and international economic law.
Laws of war, also known as international humanitarian law, regulate conduct during times of armed conflict, including (but not limited to) the methods and means of war; the protection of certain categories of persons; the prohibition of the use of certain types of weapons; and the protection of cultural property.
Norms are standards of behavior for actors with a given identity.
Norm life cycle is a framework used to understand how norms can evolve from ideas to widely-accepted standards of behavior. The framework consists of three stages: norm emergence, norm cascade, and norm internationalization.
Sanctions are coercive measures taken by one or more states, or an international organization, to protest another state’s actions and to try to force a change in that state’s behavior.
Soft law refers to legal arrangements that do not have binding obligations; are not precise; and do not delegate authority for interpreting, implementing, and resolving disputes about the law.
Transnational advocacy network (TAN) is a group of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), civil society organizations, and individuals, located in several states, that focus on a specific global issue and coordinate in pursuit of a normative goal.
Treaties are binding agreements between states that govern the rights and obligations of those participating.

Chapter 11

Ad hoc tribunal is a temporary court established to address specific allegations of human rights abuses within a particular conflict.
Crimes against humanity are acts committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population.
Ethnic cleansing is a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas.
Genocide is “the deliberate and systematic destruction of a group because of their ethnicity, nationality, religion, or race” (Britannica).
Human rights are rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, or any other status.
International Bill of Human Rights is the combination of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR).
International Criminal Court (ICC) is a permanent criminal court that undertakes investigations and issues indictments against individuals whose actions constitute grave violations of international law.
Non-intervention is a principle enshrined in Article 2(4) of the UN Charter, which prohibits “the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state.”
Peacekeeping is a tool used to provide security and support to states in the early transition from conflict to peace.
Responsibility to Protect (R2P) is an international norm that asserts that if a state fails to protect its population from mass atrocities (genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity), the international community has a responsibility to intervene.
Sovereignty is the principle under which each state is fundamentally equal in legal terms and free to act independently without the consent of any higher authority.
Transitional justice is the ways in which states emerging from periods of conflict and repression address large-scale or systematic human rights violations so numerous and so serious that the normal justice system is unable to provide an adequate response.

Chapter 12

Absolute advantage exists when a state can produce a product more efficiently (i.e., with fewer resources and/or less time) than another state.
Balance of trade measures the difference between a state’s imports and exports.
Beggar-thy-neighbor policy is an economic strategy where a state improves its own welfare by harming others, often leading to retaliation and leaving all states worse off.
Bretton Woods system is an international monetary framework agreed to in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference by representatives of the Allied states, including the development of the International Bank of Reconstruction and Development (the lending arm of the World Bank) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) is a multilateral bloc of states with emerging markets that cooperate on economic issues to counterbalance the dominance of the wealthy industrialized states.
Comparative advantage is when a state specializes in the production of goods in which it has the lowest opportunity cost.
Dependency theory describes the world as a system of hierarchical division of labor where states are classified as “core” and “periphery” and asserts that exploitation of the periphery by the core is the main cause of global poverty.
Devaluation is a deliberate step by a government to bring down the value of its currency by manipulating the currency’s exchange rate, printing more money, reducing interest rates, or increasing lending to domestic businesses.
Discount rate is the interest rate set by central banks to lend money to commercial banks.
Dumping is a technique of predatory pricing, or selling goods in a foreign market at a loss-making price to undercut competitors and force them out of business.
Economic nationalism is a modern form of mercantilism, in which policies protect jobs and domestic producers, promoting national security and self-reliance.
Exports are goods and services sold to foreign states.
Fiscal policy is used to shape a state’s budget through government spending and tax revenues.
Fixed exchange rate, or pegged exchange, is a system in which states tie their currency to the value of another currency, usually the U.S. dollar or the Euro.
Floating exchange rate is a system in which a currency’s value floats freely, without direct intervention from the state’s central bank, and its value is determined by market forces, such as the currency’s supply and demand, inflation, and interest rate.
Gold standard was the prevailing currency exchange system by the early 20th century, in which national currencies were evaluated in relation to gold.
Hyperinflation is when the prices of goods and services increase by more than 50 percent per month.
Imports are goods and services bought from a foreign state.
International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international financial institution stemming from the Bretton Woods Conference (1944) that is responsible for the stability of the world’s monetary system.
Keynesian economic theory argues that the government can play a positive role in the economy, especially during economic downturns, by focusing on demand through its monetary and fiscal policies.
Managed float exchange rate system is a system in which the currency floats freely, but the central bank occasionally intervenes when the currency’s value inflates or drops too drastically.
Mercantilism is an economic strategy that views the balance of trade as a key economic indicator of a state’s prosperity and power, and strives for a positive balance of trade (trade surplus).
Monetary policy is a tool used to influence the economy through interest rates and the supply of the national currency.
Most Favored Nation (MFN) is the WTO’s principle requiring a state to treat its trading partner no less favorably than it treats any other trading partner.
Multinational corporations (MNCs) are private businesses that operate and hold assets in at least two states.
National currency is the system of money in general use in a particular state.
Non-tariff barriers are protectionist measures, such as regulations and inspections requiring imported goods to meet specific technical, environmental, safety, and legal standards, effectively restricting the flow of foreign goods into a state.
Opportunity cost, in international trade, is a potential benefit that a state gives up if it decides to produce a certain good.
Quotas are protectionist measures that limit the quantity of specific goods imported into a state.
Regional trade agreement (RTA) is a trade agreement between two or more states designed to facilitate trade by reducing tariff and non-tariff barriers.
Short-term gains refer to immediate economic benefits, rather than long-term sustainable gains.
Structural adjustment program (SAP) is a condition for securing IMF or World Bank funding, in which a state must adopt economic reform policies, such as austerity measures, trade liberalization, or depreciation of the exchange rate.
Tariffs are protectionist measures in the form of taxes on imports, which increase the price of foreign goods and encourage residents to buy from domestic producers.
Trade deficit occurs if a state imports more than it exports, giving it a negative balance of trade.
Trade surplus occurs if a state exports more than it imports, giving it a positive balance of trade.
Washington Consensus is a set of market-based economic policies, such as privatization and deregulation, promoted by the IMF and the World Bank.
World Bank is an international financial institution that offers financial assistance to developing states.
World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization responsible for the regulation of international trade in goods, services, and intellectual property.

Chapter 13

Cash crops are crops grown for export, such as tobacco, cotton, cocoa, rubber, and coffee.
Debt relief is the partial or total forgiveness of debt, or the slowing or stopping of debt growth, offered to low-income states that cannot meet their debt obligations.
Defaunation - extinction or dramatic reduction in animal species and populations in the ecosystem.
Deforestation - large-scale conversion of forests into commercial use for agriculture, urban development, and mining.
Direct cash transfer - payments of cash to individuals or families.
Export-oriented industrialization (EOI) focuses on increasing a state’s capacity to manufacture products for international markets.
Extreme poverty refers to the condition in which a person is unable to meet basic survival needs (e.g., clothing, food, shelter). As of 2025, if a person falls below the international poverty line of $3.00 per person per day, they suffer from extreme poverty.
Famine is an extreme scarcity of food within a geographical area.
Food insecurity occurs when there is a lack of reliable access to sufficient and nutritious food.
Foreign aid is any type of assistance (e.g., capital, humanitarian aid, military assistance) that one state voluntarily transfers to another.
Foreign direct investment (FDI) is when a foreign actor (e.g., a foreign government, investor, or company) has an ownership stake in a domestic company or project.
Gini coefficient is an indicator of income inequality in a society that measures how equally a state’s wealth is distributed.
Global North refers to states with (comparatively) higher living standards, longer life expectancies, higher employment numbers, and more advanced infrastructure.
Global South refers to states with (comparatively) lower income levels, less industrialization, less infrastructure, struggling economies, less advanced healthcare, and poorer education.
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions - gases released into atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide and methane, that trap heat in the atmosphere and drive climate change.
Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita is an economic indicator of a state’s economic activity, calculated by dividing the state’s total value of goods and services produced within a state in a given year (GDP) by its population size.
Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative is a program through which states can have their debt canceled or substantially rescheduled in exchange for channeling the savings into poverty-reduction projects.
Human Development Index (HDI) is a development indicator that integrates economic and social factors, considering life expectancy, average years of schooling per adult, and gross national income (GNI) per capita.
Import-Substitution Industrialization (ISI) refers to a state’s attempt to achieve self-reliance and reduce its dependence on foreign companies through increased domestic production.
Microfinance provides financial services to micro-entrepreneurs and small businesses, many of whom lack access to banking services.
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are a set of eight goals to improve development adopted by the UN in 2000 to achieve by the target date of 2015.
North-South cooperation refers to economic activity showing collaboration between the Global North and the Global South to promote development.
North-South gap refers to the persistent disparity in wealth, development, and power between the world’s economically advanced countries (Global North) and the less economically developed countries (Global South).
Purchasing Parity Power (PPP) is a method that considers the differences in the real cost of living across states (namely, by comparing the price of specific goods in different states to compare the relative value of currencies) when measuring economic development (e.g., when measuring GDP per capita).
Relative poverty is the condition in which individuals lack the resources to participate adequately in the economic activities of their society. Unlike extreme poverty, relative poverty captures inequality within a society.
Remittances are the earnings of labor migrants employed overseas that are sent to support their families at home.
South-South cooperation is a collaborative framework among states of the Global South that prioritizes horizontal organization of co-equal counterparts, rather than a donor-recipient hierarchy.
Subsistence crops are crops produced for farmers’ own uses, such as wheat, rice, fruits, and vegetables.
Sustainable Development Goals are a set of 17 goals to improve development adopted by the UN to achieve by the target date of 2030, which came after the conclusion of the Millennium Development Goals in 2015.

Chapter 14

Digital sovereignty is the power of an actor to control the digital infrastructure, data, and information flow within a specific territory or network.
Externalization of borders is a policy in which a state shifts its border control functions to another state or to a transnational partner to prevent migrants from reaching its territory.
Global health governance is the collection of rules, norms, and institutions that coordinate international responses to health crises.
Medical diplomacy is the use of health assistance, vaccine distribution, and medical expertise as a tool of foreign policy to build influence or strengthen alliances.
Quasi-sovereignty is a situation in which a non-state actor possesses powers traditionally reserved for states, such as the ability to enforce laws on digital territory or provide national defense.
Regularization is a process to grant mass legal status to undocumented residents.
Replacement level fertility is the total fertility rate–the average number of children born per woman–at which a population exactly replaces itself from one generation to the next, without migration.
Securitization of health is the process of framing health threats (like pandemics) as existential threats to national security, requiring extraordinary measures and high-level diplomatic priority.
Transnational governance model is one in which non-state actors set the global agenda, sometimes bypassing international organizations or individual state ministries.

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