Religion is a unified system of beliefs,
rituals, and practices that typically involve a broader community
of believers who share common definitions of the sacred and the
profane. Sacred is the supernatural, divine, awe inspiring, and
spiritually significant aspects of our existence. Profane is that
which is part of the regular everyday life experience. The
definitions originated from Durkheim's studies of religion (see
1947 The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, Glencoe Press reprint
of 1912). For you, religion might be a personal definition of how
you feel about your place in the universe. It may also reflect how
you understand categories of people who share a common system of
beliefs that differ from your own (Jews, Muslims, Christians,
etc.).
For sociologists, religion is typically studied in two typically
approaches: first, a cultural approach that evaluates the religious
aspects of the culture shared by followers of a certain religion;
second, a theoretical approach to religion including its symbols,
functions, exchange-based interactions, and power issues. Religion
has always been an important issue at both levels of society:
personal and larger social. Figure 1 shows a pie chart of the CIA's
2007 estimate of the world's composition of religious followers. By
far, Muslims collectively comprise the largest single religious
belief system in the world in 2007. Over the last century
birthrates among Muslims have remained high. By sheer numbers
alone, a high birthrate among an estimated 1,300,000,000 people
makes birth become a significant factor in the Muslim world growth
rate. A less common factor is that in many Muslim nations polygamy
continues to be the norm with 1-4 wives being acceptable.
Figure 1: 2007 Estimation of Percentage of World Religions*
Next is the Roman Catholic Church which has strong membership in
Western Europe, Latin America, the United States and other
Countries and regions. Hindus which are primarily located in India
come in a close third. Jews which are daily discussed in the news
because of international issues pertaining to Israel are ranked
12th most common in the world.
The United State's Religions
Figure 2 shows the CIA estimated US religions for 2007. The
collective category of US Protestants is the largest collection of
religious belief systems. These include Baptists, Lutherans,
Anglicans, and various non-Catholic and non-Orthodox Christian
denominations. Second in percentage is the Roman Catholic Church.
In contrast to the Protestant classification which is comprised of
many diverse denominations, the Roman Catholic Christian Church is
comprised of only one denomination headquartered in Rome,
Italy.
The Roman Catholic population in the US has grown for two
primary reasons: first, Roman Catholics continue to have higher
birthrates than others (yet about the same for Mormons and
Catholics); and second, many of our US immigrants since the 1980s
come from Mexico and bring their Catholicism with them to the US.
Also from the CIA data is the fact that about 12 percent were
unaffiliated, 4 percent reported none, and 3 percent chose not to
specify their religion. After that, Mormons were next with nearly 2
percent. Mormons have a very high birthrate and a strong force of
proselytizing missionaries throughout the US and the World.
Figure 2. 2007 Estimation of Percentage of United States
Religions*
*Taken from Internet on 26 March 2007 from
www.cia.gov/library/publicat...elds/2122.html
The history of religions in the world and US cannot be
overstated in terms of the religiously-motivated treatment and
mistreatment of other human beings in the name of religion. Given
the peaceful nature of most of the major religions it is
paradoxical to have so many: religiously-based wars, genocides,
population transfers, conquest, and other forms of large-scale
aggression which have transpired throughout history. In the Race
and Minority Chapter we learned about prejudice and the goal of
finding common ground in building bridges and overcoming
prejudices. With religions this is particularly difficult to
apply.
Many of us believe very deeply in our religious convictions. We
change and alter our lifestyles and desires because we believe that
our hope, salvation, or existence will be made better because of
our sacrifices. It's understandable that we are deeply devoted and
passionate. But, we also tend to believe that we belong to the
exclusively right or correct faith and that all others are mistaken
and perhaps going to hell. Some religious fanatics believe so
strongly in the damnation of non-believers that they feel justified
in killing others as an act of so called, "saving other people from
themselves." This explains in part the rationale of the
religiously-based conflicts in our current and historical
experiences.
Religious Tolerance
Believe it or not, we don't have to all believe in the same way
and people who believe differently from you probably do so as
passionately as you do with your beliefs. Finding common ground
takes more effort, but sustains the process of open-minded,
non-prejudiced treatment of others of different religions. Figure 3
shows a photograph of one of my favorite books. Written by Jeffrey
Moses, "Oneness: Great Principles Shared By All Religions" and
forwarded by Mother Theresa, this is truly a work of
bridge-building between believers. In it Mr. Moses describes common
beliefs and values which are articulated in the core doctrines and
scriptures of many of the world and US religions. "Honor thy father
and mother, be good to those around you, it is better to give than
receive, and respect the elderly in your life" are just a few
examples of common teachings from many diverse religions found in
the book.
Figure 3. A "Common Ground" Approach to Other Religions by
Jeffrey Moses
To take such an open-minded stance requires a concerted effort
on our part. To be able to feel secure enough in our own beliefs to
find acceptance in the beliefs others have takes devotion to our
own faith and deep caring about the quality of the human experience
in our many relationships. We mistakenly believe that we have
strength in commonality when often there's just as much strength
found in mutually-respected tolerance of different people who
respect and honor one another..
Most people from most of the world's and US's religions share
most beliefs in common. It's true, but we more often define
ourselves based on differences not similarities. Most of us could
peacefully live as next-door neighbors and peacefully co-exist. In
fact, the more you talk to one another about your beliefs and the
more you agree to accept one another and respect one another's free
choice, the more understanding and tolerant you'll become. For
example, there's a category of religions in the world called the
Abrahamic Religions are those religions which trace their
religious ancestry back through "Father" Abraham. Look at
figure 4 below:
Figure 4. The Genealogy of the World's Abrahamic Religions:
Islam, Judaism, and Christianity
Abraham had a wife named Sarah who could not get pregnant. She
gave Abraham her handmaid, named Hagar, as a second wife. Hagar had
Abraham's firstborn son, Ishmael. Ishmael and Hagar ended up in the
wilderness and were miraculously preserved from exposure,
dehydration, and starvation. Eventually, Ishmael would father 12
princes as his sons. From one of his sons, Mohammed was born, and
with him, Islam or the Muslim religion.
Abraham eventually fathered a child with Sarah resulting in the
birth of Isaac. Isaac fathered Jacob and Jacob fathered sons,
including Judah. From the lineage of Judah came the Jewish religion
and eventually Jesus Christ was born a Jew and began Christianity
in all its forms. All three Abrahamic Religions combined account
for about 55 percent or 3,685,000,000 people. Father Abraham was
promised by God that his descendants would eventually inherit a
piece of land called Canaan which had about the same land mass as
New Jersey and is called Israel in our day. Christians, Muslims,
and Jews have battled and argued over this holy land for centuries
and do to this day. I often tell my students that the prophecy
stated that Abrahams descendants would inherit the land, not get
along together once they did.
Another major genealogical origin of world religions is called
Indian Religions are those which originated from the
Sub-Asian continent of India. Though the record of these
religious origins is a bit more vague than found with the Abrahamic
religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism are major world
religions which represent about 1,300,000,000 people today.
There are a classification of religions that sociologists use to
distinguish them based on beliefs and rituals. Simple
Supernaturalism has no gods, but focuses on human & non-human
supernatural forces which influences us for better or
worse. Animism also has no gods, but focuses on
good or evil spirits which inhabit animals, rocks and/or people and
animals (Simple supernaturalism and Animism underlie
Japanese Animism plot structure and themes).
Theistic Religions have divine beings which are Gods. There are
three Monotheistic Religions. Monotheistic Religions are religions
that have one single all powerful God: Islam, Judaism, and
Christianity.
Polytheisticrefers to religions with
multiple Gods such as Hinduism. About 2/3rds of all people
of the world worship in a theistic manner.
Abstract Idealsrefers to religions
that focus on sacred principles and thoughts which guide our lives
and typically have no divine beings in charge of the world and
universe. Buddhism is an example of an abstract ideal
religion.
The Functions of Religion
Let's now talk a bit about the functional aspects of religion in
the larger social picture. If you remember from our chapter on the
Sociological Imagination, religion is one of the 7 social
institutions in society (media, technology, government, family,
economy, and education are the others). For decades sociologists
have studied the functional aspects of religion as a social
institution. It is safe to conclude that religions are functional
(and sometimes dysfunctional) at both the personal and larger
social level. Table 1 below shows eight functional aspects of
religion.
Table 1. Eight Functions of Religion
Religion answers the deepest questions of existence
Religion provides emotional comfort
Religion facilitates social solidarity
Religion provides guidelines for everyday life
Religion facilitates social control
Religion provides for continuity and adaptation
Religion provides support for governments
Religion are often part of social change
Let me share a personal experience with you that will illustrate
these functions of religion at my own personal level. In 1986 I
worked during the summer at a small and remote 2-year college
called Ricks College. I ran summer youth camps and conferences for
high school students. A co-worker of mine did the same job and we
soon became good friends and his wife and my wife became BFFs. When
the summer ended we went to different universities but kept in
touch and spent time together regularly. A few years had passed and
on the eve of my major Ph.D. comprehensive exams, he called me with
tragic news. He had backed out of his driveway just when their 18
month old ran behind the vehicle. She was killed instantly.
He and his wife grieved deeply, but also had a strong sense of
peace about their loss. After the funeral I asked him to share with
me why he felt so much peace during such a difficult time. I still
remember his response, "Ron, either you believe what you've been
taught your entire life or you don't. We believe our daughter is at
peace and is where she needs to be." I was touched by his
sincerity.
I want back to campus and tried to get some studying done. My
friend from India stopped in to ask how my comprehensive exam went.
Eventually she asked me why I looked so troubled and I told her the
story. She reached over and placed her hand gently on my knee and
said, "Ron, at least you can have the peace in knowing that her
life is not forfeit. I believe that she will be reincarnated and
born into another form so that she will have a chance to live the
life she lost here." Again, I was touched by her sincerity.
There you have it. Both my friends comforted me from their
deepest beliefs about our existence here on this earth and about
how to define this tragedy in such a way that I could live with it.
Both lived their beliefs and never showed hypocrisy in their
actions and values. Both used their beliefs to guide their daily
lives and both adapted to the death of this child through their
religious filters. Because of this, I never felt threatened by
either of their differing value systems. I felt joy in having good
friends and in being in relationships where comfort is shared and
received. Sociology and the study of religion can help to inform
your outlook, tolerance, and appreciation for all types of
diversity in the human experience.
Sociologists also study the nature of religion. You see,
religions are universal in cultures around the world-that is,
almost all cultures have religions present even though many
simultaneously have different religions present. Durkheim studied
the presence of religion in societies, the nature and meaning of
rituals and rites of passage, the way in which religion supports or
undermines political authority, and how religions satisfy personal
needs (see Durkheim's The Elementary Forms of Religious Life; New
York, Collier Books, 1961).
Max Weber also studied religion and focused on how religion gave
the individual a context for understanding their life and the
purpose of it. He claimed that Protestant ideals of
self-discipline, self-control, and hard work lead to the financial
success of many who felt "righteous in God's eyes" as they lived
Protestant work ethics and simultaneously built the collective
foundation for capitalism's success in Western Civilization (See
The Protestant Ethic and The Spirit of Capitalism; translated by
Talcott Parsons; Scribner Pub. NY).
In fact, religion does shape the attitudes and values of
individuals. Gallup polling corporation collected US religiosity
data during 2008. Religiosity is the measurable importance
of religion to a person's life. Religiosity can be
measured by considering: how active someone feels in their
religion; how often someone attends formal services; how much money
they donate; how often they privately worship in their home; and
other factors.
Gallup in January 28, 2009 reported that after interviewing
350,000 US individuals, there were some collective religiosity
patterns which emerged. The top 10 most religious states were all
in the South Eastern US. The bottom 10 least religious states were:
North Eastern (7), North Western (2), and Nevada in the West. They
also reported that 65 percent of people in the US said "Yes'
religion is an important part of their daily life (taken form
Internet 26 March 2009 from
http://www.gallup.com/poll/114022/St...-Religion.aspx ).
Studying Religions
We can also distinguish religions from one another based on
their levels of membership, wealth of the organization, wealth of
the individual members, and training of their clergy (See Figure
5). A Cult is a newer religion with few followers whose
teachings are perceived to be at odds with the dominant culture and
religion. Do not confuse a cult with the Occult which
applies more to magical knowledge that is hidden from the average
person and is found in extreme areas of truth. Most religions begin
as cults. Even Islam and Christianity began with only a few
followers. In the sense that "cult" is used by sociologists, it
could be compared to a group of friends who form a soccer team then
a number of soccer teams and eventually their own league. Most new
cults rarely get past their small foundation nor do they typically
endure for extended periods of time.
A Sect is a group larger than a cult but still perceived as
being weird and is often treated with hostility by non-sect
members. A sect is relatively small by comparison to an established
church. A Church is a sect that has gained numerous followers and
has become highly bureaucratized. Today's trend in US Christian
worship involves Megachurches, or modern churches attended
by thousands of followers in person and even many thousands more
via television or the Internet (taken from Internet on 27
March 20009 from http://hirr.hartsem.edu/megachurch/database.html
).
Megachurches tend to be Protestant and evangelical in nature.
Then after much time and growth of membership, wealth, and
training, there sometimes emerges
Ecclesia, or religious organizations which
have grown to be large and are integrated with government and other
social institutions. In our modern world there are few
ecclesia found in Muslim (Iran, Saudi Arabia, etc.) and Christian
(Rome, Italy) countries; the boundaries between government and
religion in these countries are vague and overlapping.
In Utah, when it was still an official territory and not yet a
state, Brigham Young served simultaneously as the Governor of the
Utah Territory and Superintendent of Indian Affairs while also
serving as the Mormon Prophet. In order for Utah to become an
official state a non-Mormon Governor had to replace Brigham Young,
which transpired in 1858. Utah became the 45th state in 1896.
Figure 5. Cult, Sect, Church, and Ecclesia are Based on Levels
of Membership, Wealth of Organization, Wealth of Members, and
Training of Clergy
One final concept should be discussed.
Secularization is the trend toward worldly
concerns and away from concerns for the religiously sacred in the
lives of society's members. Another study of US religiosity was
collected over three scientific surveys conducted in 1990, 2001,
and again in 2008 (The American Religious Identification Survey was
taken from the Internet on 9 March 2009 http://www.americanreligionsurvey-aris.org/
). Data indicated an increase in the percentage of those in the US
claiming no religion from 8.2 percent 1990, to 14.2 percent 2001,
and finally 15 percent in 2008. The US is becoming more and more
secular. Typically the more modern a society becomes the less
religious it remains and the more secular it becomes. There exist
an inverse (opposite) correlation between science, modernization,
rationality and religious traditions and adherences (see http://www.adherents.com/).
If you find the scientific study of religion to be interesting
you might consider some of the WebPages below: