Sociological theories are the core and underlying strength of
the discipline. They guide researchers in their studies. They also
guide practitioners in their intervention strategies. And they will
provide you with a basic understanding of how to see the larger
social picture in your own personal life. A Theory is a set
of interrelated concepts used to describe, explain, and predict how
society and its parts are related to each other. The
metaphor I've used for many years to illustrate the usefulness of a
theory is what I call the "goggles metaphor." Goggles are a set of
inter-related parts that help us see things more clearly. Goggles
work because the best scientific components work together to
magnify, enlarge, clarify, and expand to our view of the thing we
are studying.
Theories are sets of inter-related concepts and ideas that have
been scientifically tested and combined to magnify, enlarge,
clarify, and expand our understanding of people, their behaviors,
and their societies. Without theories, science would be a futile
exercise in statistics. In the diagram below you can see the
process by which a theory leads sociologist to perform a certain
type of study with certain types of questions that can test the
assumptions of the theory. Once the study is administered the
findings and generalizations can be considered to see if they
support the theory. If they do, similar studies will be performed
to repeat and fine-tune the process. If the findings and
generalizations do not support the theory, the sociologist rethinks
and revisits the assumptions they made.
Here's a real-life scientific example. In the 1960's two
researchers named Cumming and Henry studied the processes of aging.
They devised a theory on aging that had assumptions built into it.
These were simply put, that all elderly people realize the
inevitability of death and begin to systematically disengage from
their previous youthful roles while at the same time society
prepares to disengage from them (see Maddox et al. 1987 The
Encyclopedia of Aging, Springer Pub. NY for much more detail.
Cumming and Henry tested their theory on a large number of elderly
persons. Findings and generalization consistently yielded a "no" in
terms of support for this theory. For all intents and purposes this
theory was abandoned and is only used in references such as these
(for a more scientifically supported theory on aging Google
"Activity Theory and/or Continuity Theory"). Theories have to be
supported by research and they also provide a framework for how
specific research should be conducted.
By the way, theories can be used to study society-millions of
people in a state, country, or even at the world level. When
theories are used at this level they are referred to as
Macro Theories,theories which best fit
the study of massive numbers of people (typically Conflict
and Functional theories). When theories are used to study small
groups or individuals, say a couple, family, or team, they are
referred to as being Micro Theories, theories which best
fit the study of small groups and their members (typically Symbolic
Interactionism or Social Exchange theories). In many
cases, any of the four main theories can be applied at either the
macro or micro levels.
There are really two distinct types of theories: first,
Grand Theory, which is a theory which deals with the
universal aspects of social processes or problems and is based on
abstract ideas and concepts rather than on case specific
evidence. These include Conflict, Functionalism, Symbolic
Interactionism, and Social Exchange Theories; second,
Middle-Range Theory, which is a theory derived from
specific scientific findings and focuses on the interrelation of
two or more concepts applied to a very specific social process or
problem. Robert K. Merton (1910-2003) was a functional
theory-based sociologist who taught the value of using smaller more
specifically precise theories in trying to explain smaller and more
specific social phenomena. These theories include: Continuity,
Activity, Differential Association, and Labeling theories. (see
American Sociology Association, Theory http://www.asatheory.org/ ).
Let's consider the four grand theories one at a time. The
Conflict Theory is a macro theory. A Macro Theory is a
sociological theory designed to study the larger social, global,
and societal level of sociological phenomena. This theory
was founded by a German philosopher, economist, sociologist, and
revolutionary (1818-1883). Marx was a witness to oppression
perpetrated by society's elite members against the masses of poor.
He had very little patience for the capitalistic ideals that
undergirded these powerful acts of inhumane exploitation of the
average person. To him struggle was innate to all human societies.
Later another German named Max Weber (1864-1920; pronounced
"Veybur") further developed this sociological theory and refined it
to a more moderate position. Weber studied capitalism further but
argued against Marx's outright rejection of it.
Conflict Theory
Conflict theory is especially useful in understanding: war,
wealth and poverty, the haves and the have nots, revolutions,
political strife, exploitation, divorce, ghettos, discrimination
and prejudice, domestic violence, rape, child abuse, slavery, and
more conflict-related social phenomena. Conflict Theory
claims that society is in a state of perpetual conflict and
competition for limited resources. Marx and Weber, were
they alive today, would likely use Conflict Theory to study the
unprecedented bail outs by the US government which have proven to
be a rich-to-rich wealth transfer.
Conflict Theory assumes that those who have perpetually try to
increase their wealth at the expense and suffering of those who
have not. It is a power struggle which is most often won by wealthy
elite and lost by the common person of common means. Power
is the ability to get what one wants even in the presence of
opposition. Authority is the institutionalized legitimate
power. By far the Bourgeoisie, or wealthy elite
(royalty, political, and corporate leaders), have the most
power. Bourgeoisie are the "Goliaths" in society who often
bully their wishes into outcomes. The Proletariat are the
common working class, lower class, and poor members of
society. According to Marx (see diagram below) the
Bourgeoisie and Proletariat cannot both have it their way and in
order to offset the wealth and power of the Bourgeoisie the
proletariat often rise up and revolt against their oppressors (The
French, Bolshevik, United States, Mexican, and other revolutions
are examples).
In fact Marx and Weber realized long ago that society does have
different classes and a similar pattern of relatively few rich
persons in comparison to the majority who are poor. The rich call
the shots. Look below at the photographic montage of homes in one
US neighborhood which were run down, poor, trashy, and worth very
little. They were on the West side of this gully and frustrated
many who lived on the East side who were forced to drive through
these "slums" to reach their own mansions.
Figure 3. Photo Montage of Haves and Have Nots in a US
Neighborhood
The Conflict Theory has been repeatedly tested against
scientifically derived data and it repeatedly proves to have a wide
application among many different levels of sociological study. That
is not to say that all sociological phenomena are conflict-based.
But, most Conflict theorists would argue that more often than not
Conflict assumptions do apply. Feminist theory is a theoretical
perspective that is couched primarily in Conflict Theory
assumptions.
Functionalism or Structural Functionalism Theory
The next grand theory is called Functionalism or Structural
Functionalism. The Functionalist Theory claims that society
is in a state of balance and kept that way through the function of
society's component parts. This theory has underpinnings
in biological and ecological concepts (see diagram below). Society
can be studied the same way the human body can be studied - by
analyzing what specific systems are working or not working,
diagnosing problems, and devising solutions to restore balance.
Socialization, religious involvement, friendship, health care,
economic recovery, peace, justice and injustice, population growth
or decline, community, romantic relationships, marriage and
divorce, and normal and abnormal family experiences are just a few
of the evidences of functional processes in our society.
Sure, Functionalists would agree with Conflict Theorists that
things break down in society and that unfair treatment of others is
common. These break downs are called Dysfunctions, which
are breakdowns or disruptions in society and its parts that
threaten social stability. Enron's collapse, the ruination
of 14,000 employees' retirement funds, the loss of millions in
shareholder investments, and the serious doubt it left in the mind
of US investors about the Stock Market's credibility and
reliability which lasted for nearly a decade are examples of
dysfunctions in the economic sector of the economy. But,
Functionalists also look at two types of functions: manifest and
latent functions. Manifest Functions are the apparent and
intended functions of institutions in society. Latent Functions are
the less apparent, unintended, and often unrecognized functions in
social institutions and processes.
Back to Enron, the government's manifest function includes
regulation of investment rules and laws in the Stock market to
ensure credibility and reliability. After the Enron collapse, every
company offering stocks for trade underwent a government supervised
audit of its accounting processes in order to restore the public
trust. For the most part balance was restored in the Stock Market
(to a certain degree at least). There are still many imbalances in
the investment, mortgage, and banking sectors which have to be
readjusted; but, that's the point - society does readjust and
eventually recover some degree of function.
Does the government also provide latent or accidental functions
to society? Yes. Take for example the US military bases. Of all the
currently open US military bases, all are economic boons for the
local communities surrounding them. All provide jobs, taxes,
tourism, retail, and government contract monies that would
otherwise go somewhere else. When the discussion about closing
military bases comes up in Washington DC, Senators and members of
Congress go to work trying to keep their community's bases
open.
As you can already tell, Functionalism is more positive and
optimistic that Conflict Theory (the basis for much criticism by
many Conflict Theorists). Functionalists realize that just like the
body, societies get "sick" or dysfunction. By studying society's
parts and processes, Functionalists can better understand how
society remains stable or adjust to destabilizing forces when
unwanted change is threatened. According to this theory most
societies find that healthy balance and maintain it (unless they
don't and collapse as many have in the history of the world.
Equilibrium is the state of balance maintained by social
processes that help society adjust and compensate for forces that
might tilt it onto a path of destruction.
Getting back to the Conflict example of the gully separating
extremely wealthy and poor neighborhoods, look at this Habitat for
Humanity picture below. I took this close to my own home, because
it represents what Functional Theorists claim happens - component
parts of society respond to dysfunctions in ways that help to
resolve problems. In this house the foundation was dug, poured, and
dried within a week. From the foundation to this point was three
working days. This house is now finished and lived in, thanks
mostly to the Habitat non-profit process and the work of many
volunteers. From the Functionalism perspective, optimism is
appropriate and fits the empirical data gathered in society.
Figure 2. Photo of a Recently Finished Habitat for Humanity
Home
Interactionism comes in two theoretical forms: Symbolic
Interaction and Social Exchange. By far, my favorite sociological
theory is Symbolic Interactionism. Symbolic Interaction
claims that society is composed of ever-present interactions among
individuals who share symbols and their meanings. This is
a very useful theory for: understanding other people; improving
communications; learning and teaching skills in cross-cultural
relations; and generally speaking, "not doing harm to your
roommates" as many of my students often say after understanding
this theory. Values, communication, witch hunting, crisis
management, fear from crime, fads, love and all that comes with it,
"evil and sin," what's hot and what's not, alien abduction beliefs,
"who I am," litigation, mate selection, arbitration, dating joys
and woes, and both personal and national meanings and definitions
(September 1, 2001-WTC) can all be better understood using Symbolic
Interactionism.
Once you realize that individuals are, by their social natures,
very symbolic with one another, then you begin to understand how to
persuade your friends and family, how to understand others' points
of view, and how to resolve misunderstandings. This theory
magnifies the concepts of meanings. Think about these three words,
LOVE, LUST, and LARD. Each letter is a symbol. When combined in
specific order, each word can be defined. Because we memorize words
and their meanings we know that there is a striking difference
between LOVE and LUST. We also know that LARD has nothing to do
with either of these two terms. Contrast these word pairs: hate
versus hope; help versus hurt; advise versus abuse; and connect
versus corrupt. These words, like many others carry immense meaning
and when juxtaposed sound like the beginning of philosophical
ideas.
Symbolic Interactionism makes it possible for you to be a
college student. It makes it so you understand your professors'
expectations and know how to step up to them. Our daily
interactions are filled with symbols and an ongoing process of
interactions with other people based on the meanings of these
symbols. "How's it going?" Ever had anyone you've greeted actually
answer that question? Most of us never have. It's a greeting, not a
question in the US culture (see culture chapter).
If you want to surprise someone, answer them next time they say
"How's it going?" If they have a sense of humor, they might get a
kick out of it. If not, you may have to explain yourself. Symbolic
Interactionism Theory explores the way we communicate and helps us
to understand how we grow up with our self-concept (see
socialization chapter). It helps you to know what the expectations
of your roles are and if you perceive yourself as doing a good job
or not in meeting those expectations.
There are many other Symbolic Interactionism concepts out there
to study, let's just talk about one more-The Thomas Theorem or
Definition of the Situation. The Thomas Theorem is often
called the "Definition of the situation" which is basically if
people perceive or define something as being real then it is real
in its consequences. I give a few examples from the media:
a woman was diagnosed as HIV positive. She made her funeral plans,
made sure her children would be cared for then prepared to die.
Two-years later she was retested. It turned out her first test
results were a false positive, yet she acted as though she had AIDS
and was certainly going to die soon from it.
In a hypothetical case, a famous athlete (you pick the sport)
defines himself as invincible and too famous to be held legally
accountable for his criminal behavior. He is subsequently found
guilty. A politician (you pick the party and level of governance)
believes that his/her constituents will tolerate anything. When
he/she doesn't get reelected no one is surprised. The point is that
when we define our situation as being real, we act as though it is
real (regardless of the objective facts in the matter).
Symbolic Interactionism is very powerful in helping people to
understand each other. Newlyweds, roommates, life-long friends,
young adult children and their parents, and teammates can all
utilize the principles to "walk a mile in the other's shoes;" "see
the world through their glasses;" and/or simply "get it." One of
the major realization that comes with Symbolic Interactionism is
that you begin to understand the other people in your life and come
to know that they are neither right nor wrong, just of a different
point of view. They just define social symbols with varying
meanings.
To understand the other person's symbols and meanings, is to
approach common ground. Listen to this statement by Rosa Parks
(1913-2005), "All I was doing was trying to get home from work." In
1955 when she refused to give up her seat on the bus to a White
person, it proved to be a spark for the Civil Rights Movement that
involved the leadership of Martin Luther King Jr. and many other
notable leaders. It was Rosa Parks' simple and honest statement
that made her act of defiance so meaningful. The lion share of the
nation was collectively tired and sick of the mistreatment of
Blacks. Many Whites joined the protests while others quietly
sympathized. After all that was written in the history books about
it, a simple yet symbolic gesture by Rosa Parks symbolically
started the healing process for the United States.
Social Exchange Theory
The remaining theory and second interactionist theory is Social
Exchange. Social Exchange claims that society is composed
of ever present interactions among individuals who attempt to
maximize rewards while minimizing costs. Assumptions in
this theory are similar to Conflict theory assumptions yet have
their interactistic underpinnings. Basically, human beings are
rational creatures, capable of making sound choices once the pros
and cons of the choice are understood. This theory uses a formula
to measure the choice making processes.
(REWARDS-COSTS)=OUTCOMES
or
("What I get out of it"-"What I lose by
doing it")="My decision"
We look at the options available to us and weigh as best we can
how to maximize our rewards and minimize our losses. Sometimes we
get it right and other times we make a bad choice. One of the
powerful aspects of this theory is the concept of Equity.
Equity is a sense that the interactions are fair to us and
fair to others involved by the consequences of our
choices. For example, why is it that women who work 40
hours a week and have husbands who work 40 hours per week do not
perform the same number of weekly hours of housework and childcare?
Scientists have surveyed many couples to find the answer. Most
often, it boils down to a sense of fairness or equity. Because she
defines it as her role to do housework and childcare, while he
doesn't; because they tend to fight when she does try to get him to
perform housework, and because she may think he's incompetent, they
live with an inequitable arrangement as though it were equitable
(don't get me started on the evidence that supports men sharing the
actual roles of housekeepers and childcare providers-see Joseph
Pleck, "Working Wives/ Working Husbands" Sage Pub, CA).
Each of us tries constantly to weigh pros and cons and to
maximize the outcomes of our choices. I often provide a rhetorical
challenge to my students when I ask them to go down to the
cafeteria, pick the least attractive person they can find, take
them on a date where they drive and they pay for everything, then
give the person a 7 second kiss at the end of the date. "Why would
we do that?" they typically ask. "That's my point," I typically
reply, having increased a bit of their understanding of the Social
Exchange Theory.
Any of the four theories can be used to study any individual and
collective behaviors. But, some do work better than others because
their assumptions more precisely match the issue of interest.
Divorce might be studied from the Conflict Theory to understand how
things become adversarial and how and why contested divorces
sometimes become violent. Divorce might be studied from the
Functionalism Theory to understand how divorce is a means to
resolving untenable social circumstance-it is a gesture designed to
restore balance and equilibrium. Divorce might be studied using the
Symbolic Interactionism Theory to identify how people define their
roles before, during, and after the divorce and how they
reestablish new roles as unmarried adults. Divorce might also be
studied using the Social Exchange Theory to understand the
processes and choices that lead to the final divorce decision,
distribution of assets, child custody decrees and the final legal
change of status (see Levinger and Moles, "Divorce and Separation:
Context, Causes, and Consequences" 1979, Basic Books).
I've enclosed a simple summary sheet of the four basic theories
used most by sociologists. It serves well as a reference guide, but
can't really replace your efforts to study sociological theories in
more detail. On the next page I've enclosed a self-assessment that
may help you to assess your leanings towards these four main
theories and two others that are often used by sociologists. On the
self-assessment don't be surprised if you find that all four
theories fit your world-view. Keep in mind they have been
extensively studied for a very long time.
Comparing the Four Sociological Theories
Introduction to Sociology: 4 Basic
Theories
Conflict
Functionalism
Symbolic Interactionism
Social Exchange
Macro
Macro
Micro
Micro
-Inequality lies at the core of society which leads to
conflict
-Resources are limited
-Power is not evenly distributed
-Competition is inevitable (winners & losers)
-Negotiations based on influence, threats, promises, and
consensus
-Threats and coercion
-Any resource can be used as tool of power or exploitation
-War is natural
-Haves and have nots
-Privileges are protected by haves
-Order is challenged by have nots
-Examples of:
Gender & Feminist
-Uses biological model (society is like a living organism)
-Society has interrelated parts
-What are functions or dysfunctions of parts
-Society finds balance and is stable
-Equilibrium
-Society adjusts to maintain balance
-How are parts integrated
-Manifest functions
-Latent functions and dysfunctions
-Example of: Systems Theory
-Society is an ongoing process of many social interactions
-Interactions based on symbolic context in which they occur
-Subjective perceptions are critical to how symbols are
interpreted
-Communications
-Meanings
-Significant others
-Roles
-Relative deprivation
-Self
-Reality shaping in self and with others
-Key Ideas:
Social construction of reality
Thomas Theorem
Definition of situation
-Example of: theories of self
-Society is an ongoing series of exchanges which occur during
interactions
