2.1: Defining Culture

Defining Culture in Multicultural Psychology

We have spent a lot of time talking about culture without really defining it and to complicate matters more, there are many definitions of culture and it is used in different ways by different people. When someone says, “My company has a competitive culture,” does it mean the same thing as when another person says, “I’m taking my children to the museum so they can get some culture”? To provide clarity within the context of multicultural psychology, culture can be defined as patterns of learned and shared behavior that are cumulative and transmitted across generations (Matsumoto & Juang, 2016).

Patterns

Culture is characterized by systematic and predictable behaviors and thought processes among its members. These patterns emerge as individuals adapt to, share, and store cultural knowledge. Although similarities exist across cultures, notable differences can also be observed. For instance, in both Canada and India, it is customary to bring a small gift when visiting a host's home. However, while Canadians may bring a bottle of wine and expect it to be opened immediately, Indians often bring sweets, which are typically set aside to be opened later (Triandis, 2007).

Sharing

Culture is a product of social interaction and cooperation. Humans share knowledge and skills within their social networks, and the content and manner of this sharing contribute to cultural formation. For example, older generations recall maintaining long-distance friendships through letters that arrived every few months. In contrast, contemporary youth culture achieves the same goal using instant text messaging (Greenfield, 2009).

Learning and Enculturation

Cultural behaviors, values, and norms are acquired through a process known as enculturation, which begins in early childhood. Caregivers are the primary agents of cultural transmission, teaching children both directly and by example. For instance, children learn social politeness by being reminded to say "thank you." They also acquire culturally appropriate dress codes and social behaviors (Rogoff, 2003).Culture teaches us what behaviors and emotions are appropriate or expected in different situations.

Culture dictates appropriate emotional expression. In some societies, it is considered appropriate to conceal anger. Instead of expressing their feelings outright, people purse their lips, furrow their brows, and say little. In other cultures, however, it is appropriate to express anger. In these places, people are more likely to bare their teeth, furrow their brows, point or gesture, and yell (Matsumoto, Yoo , & Chung, 2010).

Members of a culture also engage in rituals which are used to teach people what is important. For example, young people who are interested in becoming Buddhist monks often have to endure rituals that help them shed feelings of specialness or superiority—feelings that run counter to Buddhist doctrine. To do this, they might be required to wash their teacher’s feet, scrub toilets, or perform other menial tasks. Similarly, many Jewish adolescents go through the process of bar and bat mitzvah . This is a ceremonial reading from scripture that requires the study of Hebrew and, when completed, signals that the youth is ready for full participation in public worship. These examples help to illustrate the concept of enculturation.

Cumulative

 Cultural knowledge is information that is “ stored” and then the learning grows across generations. We understand more about the world today than we did 200 years ago, but that doesn’t mean the culture from long ago has been erased. For instance, members of the Haida culture, a First Nations people in British Columbia, Canada are able to profit from both ancient and modern experiences. They might employ traditional fishing practices and wisdom stories while also using modern technologies and services.

Transmission

Culture is passed down from one generation to the next through various mechanisms, including family, education, and social institutions. Families create their own microcultures within broader societal norms. Parents teach children behavioral expectations through both direct instruction and implicit modeling. Beyond the family, cultural norms are reinforced in places of worship, schools, and even commercial centers (Berry, 2002).Understanding culture as a learned pattern of thoughts and behaviors is interesting for several reasons. First, it highlights the ways groups can come into conflict with one another. Members of different cultures simply learn different ways of behaving. Teenagers today interact with technologies, like a smartphone , using a different set of rules than people who are in their 40s, 50s, or 60s. Older adults might find texting in the middle of a face-to-face conversation rude while younger people often do not.

Understanding Cultural Differences

Recognizing that culture is learned rather than innate helps explain conflicts between groups. Differences in cultural behaviors can lead to misunderstandings. For instance, younger individuals who frequently text during face-to-face conversations may not perceive this as rude, while older generations often do (Turkle, 2011).

These differences can sometimes become politicized and a source of tension between groups. One example of this is Muslim women who wear a hijab , or headscarf. Non-Muslims do not follow this practice, so occasional misunderstandings arise about the appropriateness of the tradition. Second, understanding that culture is learned is important because it means that people can adopt an appreciation of patterns of behavior that are different than their own. Finally, understanding that culture is learned can be helpful in developing self-awareness. For instance, people from the United States might not even be aware of the fact that their attitudes about public nudity are influenced by their cultural learning. While women often go topless on beaches in Europe and women living a traditional tribal existence in places like the South Pacific also go topless, it is illegal for women in some of the United States to do so.

These cultural norms for modesty that are reflected in government laws and policies also enter the discourse on social issues such as the appropriateness of breastfeeding in public. Understanding that your preferences are, in many cases, the products of cultural learning might empower you to revise them if doing so will lead to a better life for you or others.

Humans use culture to adapt and transform the world they live in and you should think of the word culture as a conceptual tool rather than as a uniform, static definition. Culture changes through interactions with individuals, media, and technology, just to name a few. Culture generally changes for one of two reasons: selective transmission or to meet changing needs. This means that when a village or culture is met with new challenges, for example, a loss of a food source, they must change the way they live. It could also include forced relocation from ancestral domains due to external or internal forces. For example, in the United States tens of thousands Native Americans were forced to migrate from their ancestral lands to reservations established by the United States government so it could acquire lands rich with natural resources. The forced migration resulted in death, disease and many cultural changes for the Native Americans as they adjusted to new ecology and way of life.

Cultural Change and Adaptation

Culture is dynamic, evolving through interactions with individuals, media, and technology. Change occurs for two primary reasons: selective transmission and adaptation to new challenges. For example, a community facing food shortages may develop alternative agricultural methods. In cases of forced migration, cultural adaptation can be abrupt and traumatic. The displacement of Native American tribes in the United States led to significant cultural transformations as they adjusted to new environments and ways of life (Deloria, 1988).

Understanding culture as a conceptual tool rather than a fixed entity allows for greater flexibility in recognizing diversity and adaptation. Appreciating cultural learning empowers individuals to reflect on their biases and expand their perspectives, ultimately fostering cross-cultural understanding and cooperation.

References

Berry, J. W. (2002). Cross-cultural psychology: Research and applications. Cambridge University Press.

Boyd, R., & Richerson, P. J. (2005). The origin and evolution of cultures. Oxford University Press.

Deloria, V. (1988). Custer died for your sins: An Indian manifesto. University of Oklahoma Press.

Greenfield, P. M. (2009). Technology and informal education: What is taught, what is learned. Science, 323(5910), 69-71.

Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. SAGE Publications.

Matsumoto, D., & Juang, L. (2016). Culture and psychology (6th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Matsumoto, D., Yoo, S. H., & Chung, U. (2010). The expression of anger across cultures. Emotion Review, 2(2), 136-143.

Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human development. Oxford University Press.

Shweder, R. A. (2003). Why do men barbecue? Recipes for cultural psychology. Harvard University Press.

Triandis, H. C. (2007). Culture and psychology: A history of the study of their relationship. In S. Kitayama & D. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of cultural psychology (pp. 59-76). Guilford Press.

Turkle, S. (2011). Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other. Basic Books.