13.1: Introduction

Social Movements

A social movement may be defined as an organized effort by a large number of people to bring about or impede social change. Defined in this way, social movements might sound similar to special interest groups, and they do have some things in common. However, a major difference between social movements and special-interest groups lies in the nature of their actions. Special-interest groups normally work within the system via conventional political activities such as lobbying and election campaigning. In contrast, social movements often work outside the system by engaging in various kinds of protests, including demonstrations, picket lines, sit-ins, and sometimes outright violence. These rallies, demonstrations, sit-ins, and silent vigils are often difficult to ignore. With the aid of news media coverage, these events often throw much attention on the problem or grievance at the center of the protest and bring pressure to bear on the government agencies, corporations, dominant groups or people of color, or other targets of the protest.

Types of Social Movements

We know that social movements can occur on the local, national, or even global stage. Are there other patterns or classifications that can help us understand them? Sociologist David Aberle (1966) addresses this question by developing categories that distinguish among social movements by considering what it is the movement wants to change and how much change it wants. Over time, Sociologists have identified several types of social movements according to the nature and extent of the change they seek. This typology helps us understand the differences among the many kinds of social movements that existed in the past and continue to exist today (D. A. Snow & Soule, 2009).

1. Reformative (partial social change)

One of the most common and important types of movement is the reform movement. Reformative movements seek to change something specific about the social structure. They may seek a more limited change but are targeted at the entire population. They may be progressive or regressive.

• Progressive examples
  • Historical examples include the abolitionist movement before the Civil War, the woman suffrage movement after the Civil War, the Southern civil rights movement, the gay rights movement, and the environmental movement.
  • Contemporary examples of reform movements include "Buy Nothing Day," which protests the rampant consumerism of Black Friday, the DREAMers movement for immigration reform, and the Black Lives Matter movement.
• Regressive examples
  • Conservative reformative movements attempt to restore the institutions and values of the past by eliminating existing ones. They seek to uphold society's values and institutions and generally resist attempts to alter them.
  • For example, the preservationist side of the environmental movement advocates for saving or restoring wilderness and natural areas by ending or limiting access and use by tourists and business interests.

     Reactionary 

• Reactionary movements seek to block or undo change to the social structure. The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and the Minutemen militia represent examples of reactionary movements. Both of these movements reflected white supremacy, while the KKK projected anti-Black, anti-Jewish, and anti-immigrant attitudes, and the latter reflected nativism, the policy and practice of promoting the interests of "native" inhabitants against those of immigrants. 
• In their attempt to return the institutions and values of the past by doing away with existing ones, conservative, reactionary movements seek to uphold the values and institutions of society and generally resist attempts to alter them. In contemporary society, white nationalism represents a reactionary movement that grew as a result of the "birther movement," trying to sway public opinion that President Obama was not born in the U.S. and expanded during President Trump era with the rise of hate groups and hate crimes against Asian American Pacific Islanders, immigrants, Mexicans, and African Americans. Such conservative, reactionary movements may elicit polarizing attitudes and behaviors reflecting a different type of social movement. Some Sociologists feel Reactionary movements should be in their own category.

2. Alternative movements (partial individual change)

Alternative movements are typically focused on limited individual social change and specific changes to individual beliefs and behavior. Examples include Alcoholics Anonymous, Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), and Planned Parenthood. These movements are “meaning-seeking” and focus on a specific segment of the population. Their goal is to provoke radical change or spiritual growth in individuals. Some sects fit into this category.

     Self-Help 

• Two other types of movements are self-help movements and religious movements. As their name implies, self-help movements involve people trying to improve aspects of their personal lives; examples of self-help groups include Alcoholics Anonymous and Weight Watchers.

3. Transformative/Revolutionary (complete change)

Transformative or revolutionary movements seek to completely change every aspect of society—their goal is to change all of society in a dramatic way. They extend one large step further than a reform movement in seeking to overthrow the existing government and bring about a new one and even a new way of life.

• Examples include the Civil Rights Movement or the political movements, such as a push for communism.
• The United States, French, Mexican, and other national revolutions fall under this category.

4. Redemptive (total individual change)

These movements are “meaning-seeking” and focus on a specific segment of the population. Their goal is to provoke radical change or spiritual growth in individuals. Some sects fit into this category.

     Religious 

• Religious movements aim to reinforce religious beliefs among their members and to convert other people to these beliefs. Early Christianity was certainly a momentous religious movement, and other groups that are part of a more general religious movement today include the various religious cults. Sometimes, self-help and religious movements are difficult to distinguish from each other because some self-help groups emphasize religious faith as a vehicle for achieving personal transformation.

Other helpful categories that are helpful for sociologists to describe and distinguish between types of social movements include:

• Scope: A movement can be either reform or radical. A reform movement advocates changing some norms or laws, while a radical movement is dedicated to changing value systems in some fundamental way. A reform movement might be a green movement advocating a sect of ecological laws or a movement against pornography, while the American Civil Rights movement is an example of a radical movement.
• Type of Change: A movement might seek change that is either innovative or conservative. An innovative movement wants to introduce or change norms and values, like moving towards self-driving cars, while a conservative movement seeks to preserve existing norms and values, such as a group opposed to genetically modified foods.
• Targets: Group-focused movements focus on influencing groups or society in general, such as attempting to change the political system from a monarchy to a democracy. An individual-focused movement seeks to affect individuals.
• Methods of Work: Peaceful movements utilize techniques such as nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience. Violent movements resort to violence when seeking social change. In extreme cases, violent movements may take the form of paramilitary or terrorist organizations.
• Range: Global movements, such as communism in the early 20^th century, have transnational objectives. Local movements are focused on local or regional objectives such as preserving a historic building or protecting a natural habitat.

 

Figure 13.1.1 David Aberle identified these four types of social movements, with some types of movements targeting either specific individuals or everyone, while some want limited changes, and others are more radical. (Chart based on Aberle)

 

Ethnic Studies on Resistance and Solidarity

A major element in the discipline of Ethnic Studies is understanding but also participating in liberation struggles, particularly those resisting white supremacy, capitalism, colonialism, imperialism, patriarchy, or any intersecting powers that have suppressed communities of color. In fact, the genesis of Ethnic Studies as an academic discipline came out of student struggle and solidarity across racial and ethnic groups. In this chapter, the authors will first introduce frameworks of resistance, such as Indigenous sovereignty and the impact of digital and artistic activism. We will also review key influential US-based liberatory movements and organizations, such as the Black Panthers and American Indian Movement, and the role of solidarity in these organizations. In the section on labor movements, we focus on domestic workers’ and agricultural workers’ struggles to understand how capitalism, white supremacy, colonialism, and patriarchy function as interlocking systems of oppression. Then, we examine the fight for justice for so-called “comfort women” as a transnational movement with a prominent base in the U.S. Finally, we wrap up with a section that highlights more contemporary movements focusing on environmental justice, racial justice, and gender justice. This section also analyzes how movement work has transitioned in the 21st century and how our communities adapt to continue addressing important issues that affect our lives today.

What is incredibly inspiring about the history of struggle in the United States is that contrary to popular view, people of color have a legacy of being defiant and have fought for our freedom from the beginning. We believe it is of absolute necessity to understand our history of resistance and solidarity within an Ethnic Studies framing so that students are able to identify the ways people of color have often been at the center of these struggles. Overall, we hope that students will be able to understand our rich history of resistance and be inspired to apply our collective power to demand change and organize for a more equitable, anti-racist, and liberatory future for our communities.

Contributors and Attributions

• Tsuhako, Joy. (Cerritos College)
• Johnson, Shaheen. (Long Beach City College)
• Ounjian, Jennifer (Madera College) 
• Introduction to Sociology (Lumen) (CC BY 4.0)