Test Your Knowledge
- What physical and cultural features are unique to archaic Homo sapiens? How are archaic Homo sapiens different in both physical and cultural characteristics from Homo erectus?
- Describe the specific changes to the brain and skull first seen in archaic Homo sapiens. Why does the shape of the skull change so dramatically from Homo erectus?
- What role did the shifting environment play in the adaptation of archaic Homo sapiens, including Neanderthals? Discuss at least one physical feature and one cultural feature that would have assisted these groups in surviving the changing environment.
- In your opinion, which of the hypotheses concerning the disappearance of the Neanderthals best incorporates the available evidence? Why?
- What does the regional variation in archaic Homo sapiens represent in terms of the broader story of our species’ evolution?
- Describe the issues raised by the discoveries of Homo naledi and Homo floresiensis in the understanding of the story of the evolution of Homo sapiens.
GLOSSARY
5 prime end: A nucleic acid strand that terminates at the chemical group attached to the fifth carbon in the sugar-ring.
3 prime end: A nucleic acid strand that terminates at the hydroxyl (-OH) chemical group attached to the third carbon in the sugar-ring.
Anthropocentrism: A way of thinking that assumes humans are the most important species and leads to interpreting the world always through a human lens. Species-centric science and thought.
Coalescent methods: These are models which allow for inference of how genetic variants sampled from a population may have originated from a common ancestor
Cortex: The outside, or rough outer covering, of a rock. Usually the cortex is removed during the process of stone tool creation.
Deamination: The chemical process that results in the conversion of Cytosine to uracil, which results in Cytosine to Thymine conversions during sequencing.
Divergence time: A measure of how long two genomic sequences have been changing independently.
Endogenous aDNA: A form of ancient DNA in which DNA originates from the specimen being examined.
Ethnocentric: Applying negative judgments to other cultures based on comparison to one’s own.
Exogenous DNA: DNA that originates from sources outside of the specimen you are trying to sequence.
Flexed position: Fetal position, in which the legs are drawn up to the middle of the body and the arms are drawn toward the body center. Intentional burials are often found in the flexed body position.
Glaciation: A glacial period, or time when a large portion of the world is covered by glaciers and ice sheets.
Globular: Round-shaped, like a globe.
Grave goods: Items included with a body at burial. Items may signify occupation or hobbies, social status, or level of importance in the community, or they may be items believed necessary for the afterlife.
Haft: A handle. Also used as a verb—to attach a handle to an item, such as a stone tool.
Haplotype: A set of genetic variants located on a single stretch of the genome. This unique combination of variants on a stretch of the genome can be used to differentiate groups that will have different combinations of variants.
Heterozygosity: A measure of how many genes within a diploid genome are made up of more than one variant for a gene.
High-coverage sequences: These are genomic sequences which have been sequenced multiple times to ensure that the sequence produced is a true reflection of the genomic sequence, and reduce the likelihood that the sequence has sequencing errors as a result of the the sequencing process.
Homozygosity: A measure of how many genes within a diploid genome are made up of more than the same variant for a gene.
Ice core: A cylindrical sample of ice that is removed from an ice sheet. The annual buildup of snow and ice can be studied and interpreted to better understand climate change, as well as local environmental shifts.
Infraorbital foramina: Small holes on the maxilla bone of the face that allows nerves and blood to reach the skin.
Insular dwarfing: A form of dwarfism that occurs when a limited geographic region, such as an island, causes a large-bodied animal to be selected for a smaller body size.
Introgressed genes: This is the movement of genes from one species to the gene pool of another species through hybridization between the species and backcross into the parental population by hybrid offspring.
Levallois technique: A distinctive technique of stone tool manufacturing used by archaic Homo sapiens, including Neanderthals. The technique involves the preparation of a core and striking edges off in a regular fashion around the core. Then a series of similarly sized pieces can be removed, which can then be turned into different tools.
Midfacial prognathism: A forward projection of the nose, or middle facial region. Usually associated with Neanderthals.
Mousterian tools: The stone tool industry of Neanderthals and their contemporaries in Africa and Western Asia. Mousterian tools are known for a diverse set of flake tools, which is different than the large bifacial tools of the Acheulean industry.
Nasal aperture: The opening for the nose visible on a skull. Often pear- or heart-shaped.
Non-synonymous mutations: These are changes that also occur in the protein-coding region of the genome but don’t result in a change in amino acid sequence of the protein being produced.
Occipital bun: A prominent bulge or projection on the back of the skull, specifically the occipital bone. This is a feature present only on Neanderthal skulls.
Ochre: Iron-based mineral pigment that can be a variety of yellows, reds, and browns. Used by modern human cultures worldwide since at least 80,000 years ago.
Recombination: This is the process of exchange of DNA between two strands to produce new sequence arrangements.
Retromolar gap: A space behind the last molar and the end of the jaw. This is a feature present only on Neanderthals. It also occurs through cultural modification in modern humans who have had their third molars, or wisdom teeth, removed.
FOR FURTHER EXPLORATIONS
Anne and Bernard Spitzer Hall of Human Origins—American Museum of Natural History https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/permanent-exhibitions/anne-and-bernard-spitzer-hall-of-human-origins
“Dawn of Humanity,” PBS documentary, 2015
“DNA Clues to Our Inner Neanderthal,” TED Talk by Svante Pääbo, 2011. https://www.ted.com/talks/svante_paeaebo_dna_clues_to_our_inner_neanderthal?language=en
“The Dirt” Podcast, Episode 30 “The Human Family Tree (Shrub? Crabgrass? Tumbleweed?), Part 3: Very Humany Indeed”
https://thedirtpod.com/episodes//episode-30-the-human-family-tree-shrub-crabgrass-tumbleweed-part-3
E Fossil games and activities http://www.efossils.org/page/games-and-activities
“Hobbits on Flores, Indonesia” Smithsonian Human Origins http://humanorigins.si.edu/research/asian-research-projects/hobbits-flores-indonesia
Shanindar 3—Neanderthal Skeleton—Smithsonian Human Origins http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/shanidar-3-neanderthal-skeleton
Smithsonian’s Human Origins Program Facebook page (@smithsonian.humanorigins) https://www.facebook.com/smithsonian.humanorigins/
Paleoartist Brings Human Evolution to Life—Elisabeth Daynés https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/bringing-human-evolution-life-180951155/
Green, R. E., J. Krause, A. W. Briggs, T. Maricic, U. Stenzel, M. Kircher, et al. 2010. “A Draft Sequence of the Neanderthal Genome.” Science 328 (5979): 710–722.
Gibbons, A. 2014. “Neanderthals and Moderns Made Imperfect Mates.” Science 343 (6170): 471–472. doi: 10.1126/science.343.6170.471.
Huerta-Sánchez, E., X. Jin, Z. Bianba, B. M. Peter, N. Vinckenbosch, Y. Liang, et al. 2014. Altitude Adaptation in Tibetans Caused by Introgression of Denisovan-like DNA. Nature 512 (7513): 194.
Jeong, C., G. Alkorta-Aranburu, B. Basnyat, M. Neupane, D. B. Witonsky, J. K. Pritchard, C. M. Beatl, and A. Di Rienzo. 2014. “Admixture Facilitates Genetic Adaptations to High Altitude in Tibet.” Nature Communications 5: 3281. doi: 10.1038/ncomms4281
Krings, M., A. Stone, R. W. Schmitz, H. Krainitzki, M. Stoneking, and S. Pääbo. 1997. “Neanderthal DNA Sequences and the Origin of Modern Humans.” Cell 90 (1): 19–30.
Krouse, J., Q. Fu, J. M. Good, B. Viola, M. V. Shunkov, A. P. Derevianko, and S. Pääbo. 2010. “The Complete Mitochondrial DNA Genome of an Unknown Hominin from Southern Siberia.” Nature 464: 894–897.
Prüfer, K., F. Racimo, N. Patterson, F. Jay, S. Sankararaman, S. Sawyer, et al. 2014. “The Complete Genome Sequence of a Neanderthal from the Altai Mountains.” Nature 505 (7481): 43-49.
Racimo, F., S. Sankararaman, R. Nielsen, and E. Huerta-Sánchez. 2015. Evidence for Archaic Adaptive Introgression in Humans. Nature Reviews Genetics 16 (6): 359-371.
Sankararaman, Sriram, et al. “The genomic landscape of Neanderthal ancestry in present-day humans.” Nature 507.7492 (2014): 354.
Vernot, B., S. Tucci, J. Kelso, J. G. Schraiber, A. B. Wolf, R. M. Gittelman, et al. 2016. “Excavating Neanderthal and Denisovan DNA from the Genomes of Melanesian Individuals.” Science 352 (6282): 235–239.
