6.5: Comparative Case Study - Gender Gaps in India and Japan

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Compare aspects of two different societies which had caste system

Introduction

In the 21st century, often individuals locate and assign themselves an identity that matches their preferences and motivations. There are many examples relating to racial, ethnic, cultural, and gender preferences. Specifically, in April 2021, in Brazil, over 40,000 political candidates were able to categorize their own racial identities differently than in previous elections. According to political scientist Andrew Janusz, this action provided politicians with a way to attract the voters they wanted to turn out at the polls.

Consider gender identity around the world. As of late 2021, sixteen countries allow citizens to choose between male, female, non-binary or third genders on their passports, including Argentina, Austria, Australia, Canada, Colombia, Denmark, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Malta, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Pakistan, India, Nepal, and the United States. Indeed when looking at Western Europe and the United States, the Pew Research Center has found that views on political and cultural identities have “become less restrictive and more inclusive in recent years.” Meanwhile, factors that were important toward justifying one’s political identity, such as birthplace, religion, sharing a country’s customs and beliefs, and the ability to speak the dominant language in a country, have collectively decreased importance in terms of how political identity is interpreted today.

In reality, there are still many countries in the world where political identity, as well as other forms of identity, tend to be imposed, rather than chosen for oneself. Furthermore, the debate over political identities is still heated, even in places where it seems values of inclusion are being given greater weight.

Japan and India have democracies. Although their constitutions ensure equal treatment of citizens under the law as well as freedom from discrimination based on race, religion, and gender, both countries have struggled with improving gender equality in various segments of society. Generally, gender gaps are measured with regard to women in the economy (their participation and earnings relative to men), women’s access to health, and women’s representation in politics. In all three areas, India and Japan have struggled and the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic have worsened already large gender gaps in both countries.

Using the method of Most Similar Systems Design, this case study will compare how Japan and India have experienced difficulty with their policy approaches to decreasing gender gaps. Both countries struggle with historical and cultural remnants of gender roles which continue to pervade all aspects of women’s lives today. Overall, these two countries have taken different actions to treat current gender gaps.

Japan’s Gender Gaps

Full Country Name: Japan
Head(s) of State: Emperor and Prime Minister
Government: Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy
Official Languages: Japanese
Economic System: Mixed Economy
Location: Island in East Asia
Capital: Tokyo
Total land size: 145,937 sq mi
Population: 125 million
GDP: $5.378 trillion
GDP per capita: $42,928
Currency: Japanese Yen

Source: Country Reports

Japan is an island in East Asia off the coast of China and Taiwan. As one of the oldest democracies in East Asia, Japan’s government system is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy where the Emperor is the Head of State, the Prime Minister is the Head of Government, and the Cabinet directs the executive branch. Legislative power is vested with the National Diet, which includes both a House of Representatives and a House of Councillors. Judicial power is vested in the country’s Supreme Court and some lower courts. The supreme law of the land is derived from the 1947 Constitution, which was created during the U.S. occupation of Japan following World War II. Interestingly, the 1947 Constitution was written to institute democracy, while not contradicting the previous Meiji Constitution. In doing so, it was hoped that the people of Japan would more readily accept the new constitution.

Overall, Japan’s democracy is considered consolidated and stable, as the country has upheld free and fair elections, the rule of law, and freedom of the press. Nevertheless, an area of continuing concern in Japanese society is gender equality. According to the World Economic Forums’ 2022 Gender Gap Index, the country ranks 116th out of 146 countries worldwide

Within the Meiji Era, women did not have legal rights, and were expected to perform only household duties as directed by the male head of the household. From a historical and cultural standpoint, expectations of women have been strict. Women were expected to be modest, tidy, courteous, obedient, and self-reliant, as well as compliant with male expectations and needs. In this vein, both male and female children were to be completely obedient to their parents. Women who expressed or communicated their needs were considered troublesome or overly needy, which were not desirable characteristics. Female children were directed to perform duties to help around the house, while male children were given opportunities for schooling and eventual employment in various vocations. Although the 1947 Constitution did introduce sweeping changes that should have affected the status of women, many of the cultural norms from the Meiji period still stand today, with women being socially expected to be submissive and modest.

The 1947 Constitution expanded individual rights, including but not limited to: Equality before the law (freedom from discrimination), democratic elections, the prohibition of slavery, separation of church and state, freedom of assembly, speech association, press, right to property, and right to due process. Women were granted the right to vote in 1945 (right before the new Constitution was adopted). It was hoped that women would enjoy equal rights and treatment as men. However, since World War II, women have faced great challenges in terms of being treated equally under the law and within society.

Although there is a preference for women to maintain the Meiji existence, the vast majority (almost 70%) of adult Japanese women work. At the same time, Japan has one of the worst documented gender gaps in terms of equal pay for women based on similar credentials and occupational levels as men. Indeed, the OECD noted that Japan has the second worst gender wage gap in the world.

With the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, employment prospects and data worsened for Japanese women with larger reductions in their work hours, a higher tendency to be furloughed, and pushed from the workforce at a far greater rate than men. Many believed, in the face of the lockdown and quarantines, women should be at home helping their children and tending to household responsibilities. Thus, they bore the brunt of all family-related obligations during the pandemic. This exodus of women in the workplace has been called the 'she-cession'. Economic recovery has been slow, and raises questions about the overall ability of women to re-enter the workforce again.

Inequality in the workplace is not the only area of concern for women in Japan today. Two other areas of concern

• female representation within the political structures--Although political parties in Japan have prioritized increasing the representation of women in their organizations, growth has been slow. Interestingly, survey results indicate that voters are not necessarily biased against candidates for their gender. Rather not many Japanese women run for political office, which aligns with the belief that women need to be submissive, modest, and unambitious.
• the prevalence of sexism and gender discrimination overall--Although 70% of adult Japanese women are in the workforce, the perception that women should be home with their children and handling household tasks is still firmly embedded in society.

Some research indicates that Japanese women would be more likely to run for office if political parties made efforts to lend greater support and funding for their candidacies. Scholars have also argued that the current structure of Japan’s welfare system is not conducive for women running for office or holding high-level jobs in the workplace. This idea goes back to the perception that men need to be the main “breadwinners” of the household. Plus, if a woman is not employed, the family is eligible for more government support. Data also indicates that women face stark gender-based discrimination and harassment, whether in the workplace, in schooling, or in society in general. According to a 2021 survey, almost 60% of Japanese women working in government experienced sexual harassment on the job, by both voters and other politicians.

India’s Gender Gaps

Full Country Name: Republic of India
Head(s) of State: President
Government: Federal parliamentary constitutional republic
Official Languages: Hindi, English (Plus over 430 native languages)
Economic System: Middle Income Developing Market Economy
Location: South Asia
Capital: New Delhi
Total land size: 1,269,219 sq mi
Population: 1.3 trillion people
GDP: $3.050 trillion
GDP per capita: $2,191
Currency: Indian Rupee

Source: Country Reports

India is a country in South Asia, bordered by Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. The country gained its independence from Britain in 1947, and redrafted its Constitution to install a democracy as a federal parliamentary republic with executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The executive branch contains a president with largely ceremonial duties, and a prime minister, whose role is the head of government and is tasked with wielding the executive powers. The prime minister is appointed by the president with the support of the majority party in parliament at the time. As in the U.S. democracy, the executive branch’s powers are secondary to legislative powers. The legislative branch, which contains parliament, is tasked with making laws and performing all legislative functions. Finally, India’s judiciary is a three-tiered system that includes a supreme court and a number of high and lower courts.

India’s constitution is substantially longer than Japan’s. Articles 14 and 15 of the Constitution ensure equality before the law as well as the prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. India also has severe problems with gender equality and treatment. Japan ranks 116 for gender gaps, and India ranks 135. Like Japan, India has had a long history of abiding by strict gender roles. In Indian society, men are the “breadwinners” and the ones tasked with earning for their families, whereas women are responsible for the reproduction of heirs and handling home duties (submissive to the head of the household).

Historically, women were seen only as wives and mothers, and their positions were always subordinate to men. In this society, men drove all social, political, and economic choices. The role of the women was to ensure a male child, who would eventually be tasked with performing last rites for the elders in the family, as well as ensuring the continuation of the family line. Under this system, women were expected to be highly moral and faithful, while men were encouraged to ensure male progeny, even if it meant being unfaithful. Over time, women’s rights steadily declined. The birth of daughters was not welcome news. Often, it may be more profitable to sell a daughter or woman as a commodity, rather than keep one in the family.

Although India’s constitution does recognize equal rights for men and women, and that individuals should be free from discrimination based on religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth, many historical perceptions of women's roles persist in society today.

In terms of gender equality, there is a lack of women’s representation in politics, a lack of women in technical and leadership roles, unequal access to health care, major gaps between male to female literacy levels, expanding gender wage gaps, and an overall decrease of women in the workplace. Generally, the role of women in society is ranked according to women’s economic participation, opportunity and access to education and health care, and representation in politics.

Case Analysis

Following the end of World War II, Japan’s 1947 Constitution was well-received and enabled Japan to maintain its historical and cultural origins while adopting democratic values. India’s also prioritized equal protection under the law as well as ensured individuals would not be discriminated against based on religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. Both India and Japan are democracies that continue to struggle with gender gaps. The COVID-19 pandemic has wreaked terrible outcomes on the treatment of women. India needs to focus on the health of women, ensuring women have access to affordable and quality healthcare to protect their interests and prospects of survival. Meanwhile, the Japanese government has established a new direction for many of its policies and initiatives relating to decreasing the gender gaps. For example, the Fifth Basic Plan for Gender Equity calls for major changes to support women in the workplace and to increase their representation in political parties and politics in general.