1.8: The Babylonian Captivity and the Great Western Schism

As conflict ensued between the French and English, the Catholic Church fell into a state of disunity, resulting in the “Babylonian Captivity”. In the early 14th Century, the church was a very diverse and diffuse institution. Due to the geographical distance between Rome and the kingdoms of Europe, the popes did not exercise much practical authority over the various national churches. Thus, the high-level churchmen in European kingdoms were often more closely associated with their respective kings than with Rome. Likewise, there were many times during the Middle Ages when individual popes were weak and ineffectual and could not even command obedience within the church hierarchy itself.

In 1303, the Babylonian Captivity began when Pope Boniface VIII issued a papal bull (formal commandment) that all kings had to acknowledge his authority over their kingdoms, a challenge he issued in response to the taxes kings levied on church property. Unfortunately for Boniface, he lacked both influences with the monarchs of Europe and the ability to defend himself. Infuriated, the French king, Philip IV, promptly had the pope arrested and thrown in prison. He was released months later but promptly died.

In 1305, Philip supported the election of a new pope, Clement V. Clement was a Frenchman with strong ties to the French nobility. Since Rome was a very dangerous city, with rival noble families literally fighting in the streets over various feuds, Clement moved the papal office to the more peaceful French city of Avignon. Non-French Church officials (most of them Italian) feared that the French king, then the most powerful ruler in Europe, would have undue influence over the papacy. That fear seemed confirmed when Clement appointed 113 Frenchmen cardinals out of a possible 134 positions in the following decades.

From 1305 to 1378, the popes continued to live and work in Avignon (despite the English invasions of the 100 Years’ War). They were not directly controlled by the French king, but they were definitely influenced by French politics. In addition, they accepted bribes and kickbacks for the appointment of Church officials and shady schemes with Church lands. This situation was soon described as a new Babylonian Captivity, comparing the presence of the papacy in France to the enslavement of the ancient Jews in Babylon.

In 1378, Urban VI announced his intention to move the papacy back to Rome. So, a group of French cardinals elected another pope, Clement VII. Thus, Europe was split between two rival popes, both of whom excommunicated each other as a heretic and impostor (the term used at the time was “antipope.”) This Great Western Schism (1378 to 1417) led to as many as three rival popes vying for power.

Finally, in 1417, the Conciliar Movement elected a new pope, Martin V, and made the claim that church councils could and should hold the ultimate authority over papal appointments. (Known as the via consilii, the existence of a great council with binding powers over the church’s leadership.) However, this idea undermined the concept of the “Doctrine of the Keys”, in which the pope’s authority was passed down directly from Christ and not based on a council's approval. Ultimately, pope Eugene IV reconfirmed the absolute power of the papacy in 1431. These failed attempts at reform would inadvertently set the stage for more radical criticisms of papal power in the future.