11.5: Wars

During the 17th century, war was focused on raw economics, where rival commercial European empires fought over territory and trade routes, not just glory and dynastic lines. From 1652 – 1675, the Dutch and British fought repeatedly, leading to the loss of Dutch territory in North America (hence the city of New York instead of New Amsterdam). The British also fought the Spanish over various territories. For example, the formerly-Spanish territory of Florida was handed over to the British in return for the Cuban port of Havana.

The most significant conflicts of the 18th century occurred between two great powers: Britain and France. Although Britain had established naval dominance by 1700, the French state was richer, its army much larger, and its navy almost Britain’s match. The French monarchy was also the established model of absolutism. Despite the financial savvy of the British government, most Europeans looked to France as the ideal glorious state.

Under Louis XIV (r. 1638 – 1715), France became a highly aggressive power, with territorial gains essential to the king's own glory. His “grand strategy” was to seize territory from Habsburg Spain and Habsburg Austria by initiating a series of wars. Conquered populations would be forced to help pay for the wars. Ultimately, he hoped that France would expand to the Pyrenees in the south and the Rhine in the east. These wars drove the other European powers into a defensive alliance against France, since the king's actions threatened everyone's interests. (At one point, Louis even tried to unsuccessfully invade England.)

One such conflict was the War of the Spanish Succession (1701 – 1713). In 1700, the last Spanish Habsburg died without an heir. Louis’ grandson Philip had a claim to the throne through the line of descent. The Austrian Habsburgs rejected the legitimacy of the claim, and soon recruited the British to help defeat France. Over the next decade, more European powers were drawn in. Finally, with France teetering on the edge of bankruptcy, the powers agreed to negotiate. As result, Britain acquired additional territory in the Americas and a member of the Bourbon line was confirmed as the new Spanish king. However, the French and Spanish branches of the Bourbons were to be permanently distinct from one another. France would not control Spain. In addition, the Austrian Habsburgs absorbed the remaining Spanish possessions in Italy and the Hapsburg-controlled parts of the Netherlands. This last action meant Spain was now bereft of its last European territories outside of the Iberian peninsula.

The next major conflict was the Seven Years' War (1756 – 1763), also known in U.S. History as the French and Indian War. The war began when Prussia attempted a blatant land grab from Austria, which quickly led to the involvement of the other Great Powers. Traversing continents, this particularly bloody conflict pulled in the Native American tribes that allied with French or British colonial forces in North America. At the conclusion,

• Britain won.
• France lost its Canadian possessions, including the entire French-speaking province of Quebec.
• France lost almost all of its territories in India.
• Britain achieved dominance in commercial shipping to the Americas.

While France was still the most powerful kingdom on the European continent, there were no serious rivals to Britain on the oceans.

In turn, the Seven Years' War directly led to the American Revolution (1775 – 1783). The British Parliament tried to impose unpopular taxes on the American colonists to help pay for the British troops garrisoned during and after the Seven Years' War. In 1775, an open revolt broke out, which led to the Declaration of Independence being signed in 1776. Starting in 1778, the French provided military aid to the Americans. Eventually, in 1783, Britain was finally forced to concede American independence.

Ironically, the American Revolution was the only war that France 'won' in the 18th century. However, it gained nothing but the satisfaction of having finally beaten its British enemy. The American colonists went on to create an independent nation, e.g. the United States of America.

NOTE: European wars often have different names in U.S. History. For example, the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) is called King George's War, and the War of the Spanish Succession (1701 – 1713) is called Queen Anne's War.

Map of Political Borders in Europe 1792