14.7: Counter Examples – Ethiopia and Japan

European and the United States' monopoly on advanced technology did not always translate into successful conquest. As the Scramble for Africa began in earnest in the 1870s, the recently-united nation of Italy sought to shore up its status as a European power by establishing its own colonies. Italian politicians targeted East Africa, specifically Eritrea and Ethiopia. In 1889, the Italians signed a treaty with the Ethiopian emperor, Menelik II. However, the treaty contained different wording in Italian and Amharic (the major language of Ethiopia).

• The Italian version stipulated that Ethiopia would become an Italian colony.
• While the Amharic version simply opened diplomatic ties with Europe through Italy.

Once he learned of the deception, Menelik II repudiated the treaty. Simultaneously, he directed the government to acquire modern weapons and hired European mercenary captains willing to train his army.

In the early 1890s, war broke out between Italy and Ethiopia. At the decisive battle of Adwa (1896), the well-trained and well-equipped Ethiopians defeated the Italian army. The Italians were forced to formally recognize Ethiopian independence, and soon other European powers followed suit. Thus, a non-European power could and did defeat European invaders thanks to Menelik II’s quick thinking. Nowhere else in Africa did a local ruler so successfully organize to repulse the invaders, but if circumstances had been different, they certainly could have done so.

Something comparable occurred in Asia on an even larger scale. In 1853, in the quintessential example of “gunboat diplomacy,” an American naval admiral, Matthew Perry, forced Japan to sign a treaty opening it to contact with the west through thinly-veiled threats. As diplomacy and then trade with the Japanese shogunate began, a period of chaos gripped Japan as the centuries-old political order fell apart. In 1868, a new government, remembered as the Meiji Restoration, embarked on a course of rapid westernization after dismantling the old feudal privileges of the samurai class. Japanese officials and merchants were sent abroad to learn about foreign technology and practices. European and American advisers were brought in to guide the construction of factories and train a new, modernized army and navy. The Japanese state was organized along authoritarian lines. While the symbolic importance of the emperor was maintained, practical power was held by the cabinet and the heads of the military.

Westernization meant economic, industrial, and military modernization, as well as reaping the rewards. Just as European states had industrialized and turned to foreign conquest, the new leadership of Japan looked to the weaker states of their region as “natural” territories to be incorporated. The Japanese undertook a series of invasions, most importantly in Korea and the northern Chinese territory of Manchuria, and began the process of building an empire on par with that of the European great powers.

Japanese expansion threatened Russian interests, ultimately leading to the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). To the shock and horror of much of the western world, Japan handily defeated Russia. As a result, Russia recognized Japanese control of Manchuria, along with various disputed islands in the Pacific. Whereas Ethiopia had defended its own territory and sovereignty, Japan was now besting European powers at their own game: seizing foreign territory through force of arms.

Figure 6.6.1: Japanese depiction of an assault on Russian forces. Note the European-style uniforms worn by the Japanese soldiers.