6.5: English Learner Students and Students with Disabilities

This section describes general principles and strategies for teaching print knowledge to English learner students and students with disabilities. These children may need more time to practice with teacher feedback, more explicit instruction, or another modified strategy. Preschool teachers who possess the knowledge and strategies to implement effective teaching techniques for English learner students and students with disabilities can teach all children print knowledge and other important concepts and skills needed to build a strong foundation for literacy.

Teaching English Learner Students

Research has identified several instructional practices that promote language and literacy among English learner students (August & Shanahan, 2006; Gersten et al., 2007; Slavin & Cheung, 2005). High-quality early childhood practices are just as important for English learner students as for other children. But these practices do not always support the same level of academic achievement for English learner students. Because of this, instructional enhancements can be helpful to support the language and literacy development of English learner students.

Use Visual Aids and Gestures

Using visual aids and gestures as you teach print knowledge can support English learner students’ understanding of letter names, letter sounds, and print concepts (Dickinson & Tabors, 2002). Visual aids can include letter cards when teaching in a small group and posters of the alphabet when teaching the whole class. Other examples of visual aids are name puzzles, materials for letter tracing, and letter and word tiles. Visual aids such as magnetic letters placed at learning centers can offer support to English learner students as they engage in center activities. Gestures include pointing to the letter card or letter on a poster as you teach it as well as pointing to, or referencing, the letter, word, sentence, or punctuation you are teaching during a read-aloud. These types of visual aids and gesture supports are beneficial for all children.

Transfer Skills Across Languages

Many literacy skills can transfer across languages. Therefore, another consideration for English learner students as they learn about print knowledge is transfer, or helping them make a connection between what they know in their first language and what they need to know in English. In other words, similarities between an English learner student’s first language and English can be used as a foundation for instruction (Helman, 2004). Children have the most difficulty with sounds that do not occur in their first language, so they may have difficulty producing those sounds (Bear, Templeton, Helman, & Baren, 2003; Helman, 2004). If a child’s first language has some of the same sounds as English, you might begin instruction using those sounds. The familiarity will help children learn those sounds more efficiently.

Since Spanish and English are both alphabetic languages, the process of learning to read is essentially the same in both languages. That is, children develop the foundational reading skills of print knowledge and phonological awareness and then learn to apply those skills as they learn how to decode text. Some letters in Spanish, such as b, c, d, f, l, m, and n, represent sounds that are very similar to those in English, so they may easily transfer to English reading for many children. If these letters transfer and are learned more efficiently, then more time can be spent on letters that may be more difficult to learn. For example, vowels (a, e, i, o, u) look the same in Spanish and English but have different names and sounds (Peregoy & Boyle, 2000).

Children’s families may be from all over the world. Keep in mind that children who speak a first language that is non-alphabetic, such as Chinese, will also need to learn the concept of letters and an alphabet while learning the names and sounds of individual letters. These children may need extra support when learning print knowledge.

Increase Exposure to Print

Increased exposure to print is another way in which to support English learner students during instruction of print knowledge. That is, in addition to engaging these children in the explicit instruction of print knowledge provided to all children, intentionally find ways to give English learner students, and any children who need extra support, additional opportunities to interact with you around print.

Intentional instruction allows you to create independent and teacher-directed opportunities for children to enhance their print knowledge. For example, make print referencing or a quick prompt-and-response exchange involving letter recognition a regular part of transitions during the day. A prompt-and-response exchange occurs when you ask a question and the child responds.

For example, as you transition from center time to snack time, point to a letter on the wall and ask, “What letter is this?” Find a few moments each week to work one-on-one with some children, by helping them identify the letters in their own names and then eventually other letters and sounds.

The materials provided for children’s independent exploration during center time can also increase children’s exposure to print. Using magnetic letters, letter puzzles, letter cards, and child-led activities at a print and writing center can facilitate learning of letter names and letter sounds, two of the foundations of print knowledge. Encourage children who need extra support for print knowledge to spend time in this center, and remember to spend time there with them yourself!

Teaching Students With Disabilities

This section discusses general principles and strategies for teaching print knowledge to students with disabilities. The instructional strategies for supporting English learner students can also be used to support children with disabilities or developmental delays. Teachers working with students who have an Individual Education Plan (IEP) should consult the plan and work in concert with a specialist (preschool special education teacher or speech-language pathologist). If a teacher suspects a child should be screened for a possible disability or delay, they should consult an administrator.

Provide Individualized Instruction

Students with disabilities and those not making expected progress in print knowledge may need even more intensive instruction on a daily basis (Gersten et al., 2007). Individualized instruction—that is, one-on-one explicit instruction—can be an effective practice for enhancing outcomes for students with disabilities (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Compton, 2012; Kirk, Kirk, & Minskof, 1985). One-on-one instruction is an effective way to maximize the intensity of instruction because it provides children more opportunities to practice with immediate, individualized feedback from the teacher (Gillon, 2000; McMaster, Fuchs, Fuchs, & Compton, 2005; O’Connor, Jenkins, & Slocum, 1995). Differentiated instruction in small groups is effective for many children but not sufficient for others (Slavin & Madden, 1989). Partnering students with disabilities and peer tutors and using apps that offer immediate feedback can complement individualized instruction.

Use Mnemonic Clues

Mnemonic clues are a teaching technique that can help students with disabilities learn letter sounds. A mnemonic is something intended to assist in memory. Using mnemonic clues when introducing new letter sounds helps children link the abstract sound to something concrete (Allor, Mathes, Champlin, & Cheatham, 2009). For example, when introducing the letter sound /s/, which is abstract to children, you can associate it with the picture of a sun, which is concrete. You could then use a letter card that illustrates an uppercase and lowercase S and a picture of a sun. Pointing to the S, say something like, “This letter is S. Its sound is /s/. Here is a picture of a sun to remind us the letter sound for S is /s/. Ssssun. Do you hear the /s/ at the beginning of the word sun? Say /s/.”

Incorporate Manipulatives

Incorporating manipulatives is another strategy that can help students with disabilities learn letter names, letter sounds, and concepts of print. Manipulatives are physical objects that allow children Incorporating manipulatives is another strategy that can help students with disabilities learn letter names, letter sounds, and concepts of print. Manipulatives are physical objects that allow children to learn skills and concepts in a developmentally appropriate and hands-on way. Manipulatives also provide teachers materials with which to explain and model skills and concepts (Lonigan, Farver, Phillips, & Clancy-Menchetti, 2011). For these reasons manipulatives are also effective for instruction of print knowledge for all children.

Examples of manipulatives for teaching print knowledge include magnetic letters, picture cards, pocket charts, dry erase markers, and white boards (Lonigan et al., 2013). Because children often love to play with objects, the use of manipulatives may also increase motivation and engagement.

Videos of Phonological Awareness Instruction in Preschool Classrooms

You may wish to watch these videos to see phonological awareness instruction in actioin.

Title	Link	Duration
Video 1: The Literacy Tree: A Representation of Foundational Literacy Skills	https://youtu.be/dTzdfHqKh00	2:43
Video 2: Phonological Awareness Continuum	https://youtu.be/k0IDVed9dUU	4:56
Video 3: Small Groups in Action	https://youtu.be/YXaF5qjnSLQ	6:15
Video 4: Word Level Phonological Awareness Lesson	https://youtu.be/LSF1AZjTAqc	4:38
Video 5: Syllable Level Phonological Awareness Lesson	https://youtu.be/CmwMYcQmRGo	5:55
Video 6: Onset-Rime Level Phonological Awareness Lesson	https://youtu.be/FHxs4YiB0ZI	4:23
Video 7: Phoneme Level Phonological Awareness Lesson	https://youtu.be/GJQkPrhspbU	6:36
Video 8: Phonological Awareness Throughout the Day	https://youtu.be/5jicN0F12t0	8:06
Video 9: Phonological Awareness and Considerations for Intensive Instruction	https://youtu.be/YiZMBP9ap50	5:40

Additional Resources

This section includes additional, evidence-based instructional resources and articles to enhance print knowledge instruction and extend knowledge about effective early childhood instruction. The resources and articles in this section were free and readily available when this document was finalized.

Print Knowledge Instructional Resources

• Voluntary Prekindergarten Learning Center Activities developed by a team of teachers and researchers at the Florida Center for Reading Research: Phonological Awareness https://fcrr.org/student-center-activities/pre-kindergarten
  • Letter Names / Letter Arc - https://fcrr.org/sites/g/fles/upcbnu2836/fles/media/PDFs/student_center_activities/vpk_ alphabet_knowledge/AK1_Letter_Arc_color.pdf
  • Letter Names / Letter Sort - https://fcrr.org/sites/g/fles/upcbnu2836/fles/media/PDFs/student_center_activities/vpk_ alphabet_knowledge/AK4_Letter_Sort_color.pdf
  • Letter Sounds / Sound Placemats - https://fcrr.org/sites/g/fles/upcbnu2836/fles/media/PDFs/student_center_activities/vpk_alphabet_knowledge/AK11_Sound_Placemats_color.pdf
• Reading Rockets (readingrockets.org) creates and disseminates free, evidence-based resources and information about reading.
  • Print Awareness: Guidelines for Instruction - Guidelines for how to promote print awareness and a sample activity for assessing print awareness in young children. https://www.readingrockets.org/article/print-awareness-guidelines-instruction
  • Consonants - Reading Rockets Research Director, Dr. Joanne Meier, demonstrates the sounds that the consonant letters make. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Le9KrUfwmFk
  • Vowels - Reading Rockets Research Director Dr. Joanne Meier demonstrates the long sound and short sound of each vowel. https://youtu.be/YGMmZx1fQZQ
• Colorin Colorado! (colorincolorado.org) creates and disseminates free, research-based information and activities about supporting English learner students.
  • Supporting English Learner Students - Describes some of the ways research has proven effective in preparing young English learner students for kindergarten. https://www.colorincolorado.org/article/8-strategiespreschool-ells-language-and-literacy-development

Related Articles

• Brown, C. S. (2014). Language and literacy development in the early years: Foundational skills that support emergent readers. Language and Literacy Spectrum, 24, 35–49. https://fles.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1034914.pdf
• Hancock, C. L., & Carter, D. R. (2016). Building environments that encourage positive behavior: The preschool behavior support self-assessment. YC Young Children, 71(1), 66. https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/yc/mar2016/building-environments-encourage-positivebehavior-preschool
• Jones, C. D., Clark, S. K. & Reutzel, D. R. 2013. Enhancing alphabet knowledge instruction: Research implications and practical strategies for early childhood. Educators Early Childhood Education Journal, 41(2): 81–89. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1403&context=teal_facpub
• Justice, L. M. (2004). Creating language-rich preschool classroom environments. Teaching Exceptional Children, 37(2), 36–44. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fdbf/8107fcb5aba73bd9cc68e32184851349a4a3.pdf
• Lovelace, S., & Stewart, S. R. (2007). Increasing print awareness in preschoolers with language impairment using non-evocative print referencing. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 38(1), 16–30. https://pubs.asha.org/doi/10.1044/0161-1461%282007/003%29
• Welsch, J. G., Sullivan, A., & Justice, L. M. (2003). That’s my letter!: What preschoolers’ name writing representations tell us about emergent literacy knowledge. Journal of Literacy Research, 35(2), 757–776. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/s15548430jlr3502_4
• Zucker, T. A., Ward, A. E., & Justice, L. M. (2009). Print referencing during read‐alouds: A technique for increasing emergent readers’ print knowledge. The Reading Teacher, 63(1), 62–72. http://kskits. dept.ku.edu/ta/virtualKits/Print_Referencing_During_Read-Alouds_A_Technique_f.pdf

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