2.2: Inferences

In the previous section, one of the “during” and “after” reading strategies that we examined is the formation of inferences. When readers make inferences, they use their background knowledge and information within the text to draw conclusions, answer questions, and figure out the author’s purpose, viewpoint, and underlying themes.

The process of inferring involves noticing clues within texts. When we examine the spelling of written words, we might notice clues that allow us to generate meaning that extends beyond the word itself, especially regarding the word’s history, origin, and relatives. Just as clues within individual words can be sources of meaning-making, clues within sentences, paragraphs, and broader passages can also expand the meaning that we derive from texts. When we notice details in a text and draw on our background knowledge to interpret possibilities from those clues, we have made an inference.

Inferences are an important aspect of reading because much of the meaning that authors convey to us is implied, not directly stated. For example, if your class ends at 3:00, and the students begin packing their belongings at 2:55, the teacher might infer that the students are ready for class to be over. The students implied this through their actions rather than stating it directly. Of course, some texts and genres imply more of the meaning than others. For example, a poem might be more suggestive of meaning than a report. You can think about this in relation to the image of the iceberg below. Only a small portion of the iceberg is visible above the water, and there is a great deal below the surface that isn’t immediately apparent. However, within our goal of perceiving the iceberg in its entirety, that portion below water is essential to grasp the full meaning of texts. To do so, we need to read below the surface.

To form an inference, there are two elements that you will need to utilize: 1) clues within the text and 2) your background knowledge. When texts provide fewer clues to work with, more possibilities seem likely and inferences can seem tougher to form. Likewise, if you have less background knowledge (or schema) on a specific topic, then inferences will also become more difficult. To see how inferences work, let’s examine an example. If you saw your sibling look down at their report card and frown, what do you think might have happened? Note your thoughts below.

Note Your Thoughts

In this example, what were the clues within the text? One clue might be that your sibling was specifically looking at their report card. As you can imagine, if your sibling was looking at the TV instead of a report card, the inference you form would probably be different. Another clue is that your sibling was frowning. If they were smiling at the report card instead of frowning, then you probably would have formed a different inference. This goes to show that the clues in the text matter. As readers, we are constantly trying to make meaning from the texts we read; therefore, to maximize meaning-making, it is important to be aware of which clues we were picking up on and how we were using them to interpret texts.

The other essential element that you need to form an inference is background knowledge or schema. In the example above, you might have background knowledge in several areas. First, you probably know that a frown is a sign of displeasure, not happiness. Furthermore, you might also know, based on your background knowledge, that a report card indicates your grades in your classes. Imagine, if you had no idea what a report card was, it would be tough to form this inference. Even though we all have more schema on some topics than others, we typically have basic knowledge on most topics. Our schema can be formed by texts we read, formal areas of study, personal experiences, and many other sources. Although inferring is a reading strategy, it is actually a tool for meaning-making that we utilize in everyday life. In fact, inferences are a common cognitive strategy, but we don’t always think about how or why we are forming certain inferences. To gain more awareness of how we use clues and schema within the inference process, try to fill in your thoughts on the situation below:

If you watched your dog run to the front door and start wagging its tail, what do you think might be happening? Note your thoughts below:

Note Your Thoughts Below

­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­How might your conclusion change if your dog went to the front door and began to growl?

Although there are many possibilities to explain what could be happening in this situation, some of those possibilities are more likely than others. For example, in the first scenario we might infer that the dog’s owner is coming home. Based on the clues in the text, especially the dog wagging its tail while at the front door, it seems that the dog is happily awaiting someone who is coming to the house. In the next scenario, we might infer that a mail carrier is arriving at the door. This is informed by both the clues in the text as well as our schema, which tells us that dogs often bark at mail carriers. However, it is also possible that another stranger is approaching the house. As with any inference, we can only form a reasonable conclusion about the meaning that is being suggested in the text.

To gain a sense for how these everyday inferences work, see if you can fill in the chart below. After reading the sentence, note the clues in the text, your relevant schema, and your inference.

clues in text + relevant schema = inference

Text	Clues in the Text	Your Background Knowledge	Inference
When I woke up this morning, I looked out the window and saw that the ground was wet.
Someone at my dinner party asks for seconds.
My sister and I are the only ones home. The cookie jar, which was full just an hour ago, is now empty.
The neighbor’s house is on fire. The detectives later found gasoline had been poured on the beds.
The woman put on her boots, hat, coat, and gloves. Then she got her cane and went outside.

Now that we’ve gained some practice with everyday inferences, let’s apply this knowledge to the flash fiction text below. These short stories, which could be as brief as 25 words or less, leave a lot of the meaning to be inferred by the reader.

“Hero” by Trenton Orris

“They remembered him for the battles he fought in. She remembered him in the rocking chair on the porch at sunset, withered, telling fairy tales."

Note Your Thoughts Below

How do you interpret this story? Note those interpretations below.

Which details in the text were critical in helping you form these interpretations?

Which relevant schema did you activate to form your inferences?