3.2: Outline

3.1: Foundations of Culture and Identity

A. We develop a sense of who we are based on what is reflected back on us from other people. Our parents, friends, teachers, and the media help shape our identities.

B. Most people in Western societies reach a stage in adolescence where maturing cognitive abilities and increased social awareness lead them to begin to reflect on who they are

C. Our identities make up an important part of our self-concept and can be broken down into three main categories.

1. Personal, Social, and Cultural Identities

A. Our identities are formed through processes that started before we were born and will continue after we are gone; therefore our identities aren’t something we achieve or complete.

B. Personal identities include the components of self that are primarily intrapersonal and connected to our life experiences.

1. Personal identities may change often as people have new experiences and develop new interests and hobbies.

C. Social identities are the components of self that are derived from involvement in social groups with which we are interpersonally committed.

1. Social identities differ from personal identities because they are externally organized through membership.

2. Social identities do not change as often because they take more time to develop, as you must become interpersonally invested.

D. Cultural identities are based on socially constructed categories that teach us a way of being and include expectations for social behavior or ways of acting

1. Since we are often a part of them since birth, cultural identities are the least changeable of the three.

2. In order to be accepted as a member of a cultural group, members must be acculturated, essentially learning and using a code that other group members will be able to recognize.

E. Ascribed identities are personal, social, or cultural identities that are placed on us by others.

F. Avowed identities are those that we claim for ourselves.

1. Although some identities are essentially permanent, the degree to which we are aware of them, also known as salience, changes. The intensity with which we avow an identity also changes based on context.

G. Dominant identities historically had and currently have more resources and influence.

1. Uneven distribution of resources and power means members of dominant groups are granted privileges while non-dominant groups are at a disadvantage.

H. Nondominant identities historically had and currently have less resources and influence.

1. The main nondominant groups must face various forms of institutionalized discrimination, including racism, sexism, heterosexism, and ableism.

2. Identity Development

A. While the stages in this model help us understand how many people experience their identities, identity development is complex, and there may be variations.

B. We must also remember that people have multiple identities that intersect with each other.

C. Nondominant Identity Development

1. The first stage is unexamined identity, which is characterized by a lack of awareness of or lack of interest in one’s identity.

a. When a person’s lack of interest in their own identity is replaced by an investment in a dominant group’s identity, they may move to the next stage.

2. In the conformity stage, an individual internalizes or adopts the values and norms of the dominant group, often in an effort not to be perceived as different.

a. Individuals may attempt to assimilate into the dominant culture by changing their appearance, their mannerisms, the way they talk, or even their name.

b. So people move to the next stage when they realize that despite their efforts they are still perceived as different by and not included in the dominant group.

3. In the resistance and separation stage, an individual with a nondominant identity may shift away from the conformity of the previous stage to engage in actions that challenge the dominant identity group.

a. Individuals in this stage may also actively try to separate themselves from the dominant group, interacting only with those who share their nondominant identity.

b. Staying in this stage may indicate a lack of critical thinking if a person endorses the values of the nondominant group without question.

4. The integration stage marks a period where individuals with a nondominant identity have achieved a balance between embracing their own identities and valuing other dominant and nondominant identities.

D. Dominant Identity Development

1. The unexamined stage of dominant identity formation is similar to nondominant in that individuals in this stage do not think about their or others’ identities.

a. Unlike people with a nondominant identity who usually have to acknowledge the positioning of their identity due to discrimination and prejudice they encounter, people with dominant identities may stay in the unexamined stage for a long time.

2. In the acceptance stage, a person with a dominant identity passively or actively accepts that some people are treated differently than others but doesn’t do anything internally or externally to address it.

a. In the passive acceptance stage, we must be cautious not to blame individuals with dominant identities for internalizing racist, sexist, or heterosexist “norms.”

b. Some may progress to an active state where they acknowledge inequality and are proud to be in the “superior” group.

c. Many people never progress from this stage. If they do, it’s usually because of repeated encounters with individuals or situations that challenge their acceptance of the status quo, such as befriending someone from a nondominant group or taking a course related to culture.

3. The resistance stage of dominant identity formation is a major change from the previous in that an individual acknowledges the unearned advantages they are given and feels guilt or shame about it.

a. While moving to this step is a marked improvement in regards to becoming a more aware and socially just person, getting stuck in the resistance stage isn’t productive, because people are often retreating rather than trying to address injustice.

4. People in the redefinition stage revise negative views of their identity held in the previous stage and begin to acknowledge their privilege and try to use the power they are granted to work for social justice.

5. The final stage of dominant identity formation is integration. This stage is reached when redefinition is complete and people can integrate their dominant identity into all aspects of their life, finding opportunities to educate others about privilege while also being a responsive ally to people in nondominant identities.

E. Bi- or Multiracial Identity Development

1. Originally, people thought that bi-racial individuals followed the development model of minority individuals, but given that we now know that race and the meanings about race are socially constructed, it makes sense to realize that a person of mixed racial ancestry is likely to be viewed differently (from both the dominant culture and the individual’s own culture) than a minority individual.

2. Stage 1: Personal Identity. Children are not aware of race as a value-based social category and derive their personal identity from individual personality features instead of cultural ones.

3. Stage 2: Group Categorization. In the move from stage one to two, the person goes from no racial or cultural awareness to having to choose between one or the other.

4. Stage 3: Enmeshment/Denial. Following the choice made in stage two, individuals attempt to immerse themselves in one culture while denying ties to the other.

a. This process may result in guilt or feelings of distance from the parent and family whose culture was rejected in stage two.

b. If these feelings are resolved then the child moves to the next stage. If not, they remain here.

5. Stage 4: Appreciation. When feelings of guilt and anger are resolved the person can work to appreciate all of the cultures that shape their identity.

a. While there is an attempt to learn about the diversity of their heritage, they will still identify primarily with the culture chosen in stage two.

6. Stage 5: Integration. In the fifth and final stage, the once fragmented parts of the person’s identity are brought together to create a unique whole.

3. Difference Matters

A. Whenever we encounter someone, we notice similarities and differences.

1. We don’t only see similarities and differences on an individual level. In fact, we also place people into in-groups and out-groups based on the similarities and differences we perceive.

2. In these situations, it is more likely that stereotypes and prejudice will influence our communication.

B. There is an ideology of domination that makes it seem natural and normal to many that some people or groups will always have power over others.

1. Individuals with dominant identities may not validate the experiences of those in nondominant groups because they do not experience the oppression directed at those with nondominant identit

C. One of the first reasons difference matters is that people and groups are treated unequally, and better understanding of how those differences came to be can help us create a more just society.

3.2: Exploring Specific Cultural Identities

A. By looking at history, we can see how cultural identities that seem to have existed forever actually came to be constructed for various political and social reasons and how they have changed over time.

B. Social constructionism is a view that argues the self is formed through our interactions with others and in relation to social, cultural, and political contexts

1. Race is a socially constructed category based on differences in appearance that has been used to create hierarchies that privilege some and disadvantage others.

A. Race didn’t become a socially and culturally recognized marker until European colonial expansion in the 1500s.

1. Racial distinctions have been based largely on phenotypes, or physiological features such as skin color, hair texture, and body/facial features.

2. Western “scientists” used these differences as “proof” that native populations were less evolved than the Europeans, which helped justify colonial expansion, enslavement, genocide, and exploitation on massive scales.

3. Racial classifications used by the government and our regular communication about race in the United States have changed frequently.

B. We should not assume, however, that someone identifies with his or her cultural lineage, as many people have more in common with their US American peers than a culture that may be one or more generations removed.

1. If you are unsure what to use, you could always observe how a person refers to himself or herself, or you could ask for his or her preference. In any case, a competent communicator defers to and respects the preference of the individual.

2. Ethnicity is a term that describes shared culture — the practices, values, and beliefs of a group.

A. Ethnicity, like race, continues to be an identification method that individuals and institutions use today — whether through the census, affirmative action initiatives, non-discrimination laws, or simply in personal day-to-day relations.

B. The label Latin American generally refers to people who live in Central American countries.

3. Gender is an identity based on internalized cultural notions of masculinity and femininity that is constructed through communication and interaction.

A. While it is true that there are biological differences between who we label male and female, the meaning our society places on those differences is what actually matters in our day-to-day lives.

1. The biological differences are interpreted differently around the world, which further shows that although we think gender is a natural, normal, stable way of classifying things, it is actually not.

B. Sex is based on biological characteristics, including external genitalia, internal sex organs, chromosomes, and hormones

1. While the biological characteristics between men and women are obviously different, it’s the meaning that we create and attach to those characteristics that makes them significant.

C. Gender has been constructed over the past few centuries in political and deliberate ways that have tended to favor men in terms of power.

1. This system is based on the ideology of patriarchy, which is a system of social structures and practices that maintains the values, priorities, and interests of men as a group

2. Feminism as an intellectual and social movement advanced women’s rights and our overall understanding of gender.

3. Transgender is an umbrella term for people whose gender identity and/or expression do not match the gender they were assigned by birth.

4. Sexuality is often something we view as personal and private but one only needs to observe popular culture and media for a short time to see that sexuality permeates much of our public discourse.

A. Sexuality is also biological in that it connects to physiological functions that carry significant social and political meaning like puberty, menstruation, and pregnancy.

B. Sexuality connects to public health issues like sexually transmitted infections (STIs), sexual assault, sexual abuse, sexual harassment, and teen pregnancy.

C. Sexuality is at the center of political issues like abortion, sex education, and gay and lesbian rights.

1. Sexual orientation refers to a person’s primary physical and emotional sexual attraction and activity.

5. Ability

A. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) defines an individual with a disability as “a person who has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, a person who has a history or record of such an impairment, or a person who is perceived by others as having such an impairment”

B. Ableism is the system of beliefs and practices that produces a physical and mental standard that is projected as normal for a human being and labels deviations from it abnormal, resulting in unequal treatment and access to resources.

1. During the early part of the 1900s, the eugenics movement was the epitome of the move to rehabilitate or reject people with disabilities

2. Much has changed for people with disabilities in the United States in the past fifty years. The independent living movement (ILM) was a part of the disability rights movement that took shape along with other social movements of the 1960s and 1970s.

C. Interability communication is communication between people with differing ability levels.

1. Since many people are unsure of how to communicate with a person with disabilities, the “Ten Commandments of Etiquette for Communicating with People with Disabilities” to help you in communicating with persons with disabilities.

3.3 Identity and Migration

1. Cross-cultural adaptation

A. Acculturation is the learning and adapting of at least some of the values, norms, and behaviors of the new culture.

1. Distinguish between psychological adjustment (emotional well-being) and sociocultural adaptation (the ability to function day-to-day in the target culture).

2. Assimilation is the loss of one's original cultural identity by acquiring a new identity in the host culture

3. Adapting to the host culture but maintaining the identity from one's native culture is integration.

4. In separation the individual maintains his or her native identity with minimal adaptation to the host culture, although the individual may choose for practical reasons, such as employment, to adopt particular aspects of the host culture

5. The fourth mode of acculturation is marginalization, in which individuals have a weak identification with both host and native cultures.

6. An additional mode of acculturation was identified by Richard Mendoza (1989). He labeled this cultural transmutation, in which an individual chooses to identify predominately with a third cultural group, such as youth culture or gay/lesbian groups.

B. The history of immigration in the United States is also tied to the way that race has been constructed.

2. Refugees

A. In addition to those leaving their home country in order to better themselves and their families economically, many migrants leave in order to escape regional or national danger or deprivation.

B. Relationships between refugees and permanent residents can present problems. Resentments are formed due to resources allocated to refugees, attributing crime to refugees, or blaming refugees for diseases or illnesses.