4.2: Outline

4.1: Language and Culture

A. We use language as a system to create and exchange meaning with one another, and the types of words we use influence both our perceptions and others interpretation of our meanings.

B. Language is one of the more conspicuous expressions of culture.

1. The Study of Language

A. Linguistics is the study of language and its structure. Linguistics deals with the study of particular languages and the search for general properties common to all languages.

B. Areas of research for linguists include:

1. Phonetics: the study of the production, acoustics, and hearing speech sounds.

2. Phonology: the patterning of sounds.

3. Morphology: the patterning of words.

4. Syntax: the structure of sentences.

5. Semantics: meaning.

6. Pragmatics: language in context.

2. World Languages

A. Languages evolve over time.

B. Language families group languages together, according to similarities in vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.

1. Languages within a same family derive from a common ancestor, called a proto-language.

2. Membership in a given family is determined through comparative linguistics

3. There are languages which do not belong to families, known as language isolates

C. A dialect refers to a variety of a language that is used by particular group of speakers, defined normally regionally, but could be related to social class or ethnicity as well.

3. Language Is Arbitrary and Symbolic

A. Words, by themselves, do not have any inherent meaning. Humans give meaning to them, and their meanings change across time.

B. Words have two types of meanings:

1. The denotative meaning is the common meaning, often found in the dictionary.

2. The connotative meaning is often not found in the dictionary but in the community of users itself.

4. Language Evolves

A. As time passes and technology changes, people add new words to their language, repurpose old ones, and discard archaic ones.

5. Language Shapes Our Thought

A. The link between language and culture and the idea that language shapes how we think about our world

1. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis postulates that your native language has a profound influence on how you see the world, that you perceive reality in the context of the language you have available to describe it.

B. More widely accepted today is the concept of linguistic relativity, meaning that language shapes our views of the world but is not an absolute determiner of how or what we think.

C. Learning a second language leads one early on to appreciate the fact that there may not be a one-to-one correspondence between words in one language and those in another.

1. While the dictionary definitions (denotation) may be the same, the actual usage in any given context (connotation) may be quite different.

2. Jargon, which often references a specialized technical language.

3. A related term is an argot, a kind of secret language designed to exclude outsiders, such as the language used by criminal gangs.

4.2: Moving Between Languages

1. Bilingualism and Multilingualism

A. Individuals are much more likely than in the past to be exposed, in person or online, to speakers of other languages.

B. Bilingualism

1. Studies have shown that not only do bilinguals have the advantage of likely fluency in two languages but that the process of growing up bilingual also has a positive effect on brain development.

2. Bilinguals may differ in their level of proficiency in the languages they speak.

3. Normally a bilingual will have one dominant language

C. Monolingualism is by and large a historical and Anglophone anomaly

2. Learning a Second Language

A. Many monolinguals are likely to assume that the difference between languages is largely semantic, that is to say, that moving from one language to another is simply a matter of substituting words.

1. How sentences are put together can vary significantly by language. Learning German, for example, will expose learners to syntax (word order) that is quite different from the way sentences are put together in many languages.

2. The degree of difficulty in learning a second language can vary depending on a number of factors, such as motivation, time commitment, and innate ability to learn.

B. Most current theories of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) advocate a sociocognitive approach, combining learning of vocabulary and grammar through drills and repetition and culturally strategic knowledge and strategic competence, i.e., what's appropriate to say in a given context.

C. Polyglots, speakers of multiple languages, are motivated to learn as many languages as possible.

3. Language Learning and Technology

A. Language learners may be using online resources in conjunction with instructed language learning in a formal school setting, or they may be independently learning or maintaining a second language.

1. There are commercial online language learning services online such is DuoLingo or Mango Languages.

2. A free alternative is to connect online with other language learners through a site such as the Mixxer.

3. Tandem learning, in which two learners of each other's language serve as conversation partners and native informants, is also popular.

B. Informal language learning through the Internet has become increasingly popular, as it offers just-in-time learning, anytime access, and low cost.

1. For tourists, there are phrasebooks, virtual guided tours, and other language and cultural resources in electronic form.

2. Among the self-directed language learning software packages, one of the better-known products is Rosetta Stone. It features a sequenced presentation of the target language, initially in phrases and short sentences, and then moving on gradually to larger language chunks.

4. English as a World Language

A. Often there is a close and natural connection between the language one learns and the culture represented by that language. In fact, interest in the target culture may be the starting point for learning a new language.

B. It is estimated that there are today a larger number of people worldwide who speak English as a second language than as a native language.

1. English is seen in many countries as an essential tool for social and economic advancement.

2. English is sometimes seen an instrument of cultural imperialism, given the history of colonization, evangelization, and spread of US consumer/popular culture from the Anglophone world.

3. The different social significance of speaking English across cultures points to the inherent cultural forces language embodies beyond serving as a means of communication.

4. Language choice can be a way to position oneself socially. In many cultures, English may be an important component of individual identity and agency.

C. The interest in English has resulted in a boom in English classes in many countries.

1. There has been a shift in how English is taught as a second language. It is no longer the case that learning English is tied necessarily to learning as well about the culture of Great Britain or the USA.

2. There is a lot of interest in "English for Special Purposes," English classes tailored to those with particular professional needs, such as business, tourism, or a highly technical field. This may lead to limited proficiency in English within a narrow semantic field.

D. In the early days of the Internet there was concern that English would crowd out all other languages. That has not, however, been the case. Statistics show much faster Internet growth in countries where English is not the dominant language.

5. Endangered Languages

A. There are approximately 6500 languages spoken in the world today, but about 2000 of those languages have fewer than 1000 speakers.

1. It is estimated that at least half of the world’s languages are endangered and will become extinct within the next century.

2. Particularly with indigenous languages in the Americas and Asia. Of the 165 indigenous languages still spoken in North America, only 8 are spoken by as many as 10,000 people. About 75 are spoken by only a handful of older people.

B. Given the close connection we have discussed here between language and culture, losing language communities also means a loss of human cultural capital, which is irreplaceable.

1. In an effort to preserve endangered languages, field linguists attempt to capture recordings from the remaining speakers of these languages.

2. For the majority of the world languages which do not have a written language, losing the last remaining speakers can mean the disappearance of the spoken stories and traditions.

6. Translation & Interpretation

A. Both enable communication across language boundaries from source to target. Both need deep cultural and linguistic understanding along with expert knowledge of the subject area and the ability to communicate clearly.

B. Translation generally involves the process of producing a written text that refers to something written in another language.

1. Traditionally, the translator would read the source in its original language, decipher its meaning, then write, rewrite, and proofread the content in the target language to ensure the original meaning, style, and content are preserved.

2. Translators are often experts in their fields of knowledge as well as linguists fluent in two or more languages with excellent written communication skills.

C. Interpretation is the process of orally expressing what is said or written in another language.

1. Interpreters need to transpose the source language within the given context, preserving its original meaning, but rephrasing idioms, colloquialisms, and other culturally-specific references in ways that the target audience can understand.

2. Interpreters are also often experts in fields of knowledge, cultures, and languages with excellent memories.

4.3 Variations in Communication Styles

1. Communication Styles

A. Language is not culture free. How language is used in a particular culture is strongly related to the values a culture emphasizes, and how it believes that the relations between humans ought to be.

B. High and Low Context

1. In high context communication:

a. The meaning is in the people, or more specifically, the relationship between the people as opposed to just the words.

b. Body language is as important and sometimes more important than the actual words spoken.

c. People tend to be more indirect and expect the person they are communicating with to "read between the lines" to decode the implicit part of their message.

2. High context cultures are very often collectivistic as well.

3. In low context communication:

a. Little (or "low") context is needed for comprehension because the essence of the communication is conveyed by the words used and little information is conveyed by nonverbal means.

b. The speaker is expected to be responsible for constructing a clear message that the listener can decode easily.

4. Low context cultures are individualist so people openly express their views.

5. Communication between people from high-context and low-context cultures can be confusing.

C. Direct/Indirect

1. The direct/indirect continuum has to do with the explicitness of one’s talk, or how much of their thoughts are communicated directly through words and how much is hinted at.

2. Direct speech is very explicit while indirect speech is more obscure.

3. Direct styles:

a. Those in which verbal messages reveal the speaker’s true intentions, needs, wants, and desires.

b. The focus is on accomplishing a task.

c. The message is clear, and to the point without hidden intentions or implied meanings.

d. The communication tends to be impersonal.

e. Conflict is discussed openly and people say what they think.

4. Indirect styles:

a. Those in which communication is often designed to hide or minimize the speaker’s true intentions, needs, wants, and desires.

b. Communication tends to be personal and focuses on the relationship between the speakers.

c. The language may be subtle, and the speaker may be looking for a “softer” way to communicate there is a problem by providing many contextual cues.

d. A hidden meaning may be embedded into the message because harmony and “saving face” are more important than truth and confrontation.

D. Elaborate/Understated

1. The quantity of talk that a culture values.

2. The elaborate style:

a. Uses more words, phrases, or metaphors to express an idea than the understated style.

b. Includes the use of rich and expressive language in everyday conversation.

c. May be described as descriptive, poetic, or too wordy depending on your view.

3. The understated style:

a. Values simplicity and silence. People who speak sparingly tend to be trusted more than people who speak a lot.

b. Rewards prudent word choice that allows an individual to be socially discreet, gain social acceptance, and avoid social penalty.

E. Personal/Contextual

1. The contextual style is one where there are structural linguistic devices used to mark the relationship between the speaker and the listener.

2. The English language has no such linguistic distinctions; it is an example of the personal style that enhances the sense of “I.”

F. Instrumental/Affective

1. Refers to who holds the responsibility for effectively conveying a message: the speaker or the audience?

2. The instrumental style is goal- or sender-orientated, meaning it is the burden of the speaker to make themselves understood.

3. The affective style is more receiver-orientated thus, places more responsibility on the listener.

2. Variations in Context Rules of Communication Styles

A. While there are differences in the preferred communication styles used by various cultures, no particular culture will use the same communication style all the time.

B. Code-switching is when a person either emphasizes or minimizes the differences between himself/herself and the other person in conversation.

1. The practice of shifting the language that you use to better express yourself in conversations.

2. People, consciously and unconsciously, code-switch to better reflect the speech of those around them.

C. Interracial Communication

1. Racist patterns and practices go through societal institutions, which means that racism exists and doesn’t have to be committed by any one person.

2. As competent communicators and critical thinkers, we must challenge ourselves to be aware of how racism influences our communication at individual and societal levels.

a. Dominant groups tend to define what is correct or incorrect usage of a language, and since language is so closely tied to identity, labeling a group’s use of a language as incorrect or deviant challenges or negates part of their identity.

b. The US Constitution does not stipulate a national language, and Congress has not designated one either.

3. Some people of color may engage in code-switching when communicating with dominant group members because adopting the language practices of the dominant group may minimize perceived differences.

3. Attitudes Towards Speaking, Silence, and Writing

A. In some cultures, such as the United States, speech is highly valued, and it is important to be articulate and well-spoken in personal as well as public settings.

1. Such countries tend to take silence as a sign of indifference, indignation, objection, and even hostility.

B. In listening cultures, silence is a way to keep exchanges calm and orderly. In collectivistic cultures, it is polite to remain silent when your opinion does not agree with that of the group.

C. The act of writing also varies widely in value

1. In the United States, written contracts are considered more powerful and binding than oral consent.

2. Other cultures tend to value oral communication over written communication or even a handshake over words.