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1 What Is Politics and What Is Political Science?
6. Harold Dwight Lasswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How (New York: P. Smith, 1950).7. The sociology discipline, in contrast, concentrates on the study of social behavior and institutions outside of the government.8. Rachel Gable, The Hidden Curriculum: First Generation Students at Legacy Universities (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2021).10. Henry Martyn Robert and Will Eisner, Robert's Rules of Order (Toronto: Bantam Books, 1986).16. See, for example, Jamie L. Carson, Joel Sievert, and Ryan D. Williamson, “Nationalization and the Incumbency Advantage,” Political Research Quarterly 73, no. 1 (March 1, 2020): 156–168, https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912919883696; James N. Druckman, Martin J. Kifer, and Michael Parkin, “Campaign Rhetoric and the Incumbency Advantage,” American Politics Research 48, no. 1 (January 30, 2019): 22–43; Maggie Koerth, “How Money Affects Elections,” FiveThirtyEight, September 10, 2018, https://fivethirtyeight.com/features...ed-love-story/.18. In fact, the Australian government has stated that “the public interest should not be defined.” Australian Law Reform Commission, “Meaning of Public Interest,” in Serious Invasions of Privacy in the Digital Era (Queensland, AU: Australian Law Reform Commission, March 30, 2014), accessed September 8, 2021, https://www.alrc.gov.au/publication/...blic-interest/.19. Robert A. Dahl, “The Concept of Power,” Behavioral Science 2, no. 3 (1957): 201–215. doi:10.1002/bs.3830020303.22. Why did we not provide an exact number? Because there are disputes regarding whether a few political entities, such as Taiwan and Palestine, meet the definition of a state.25. David A. Harris, “The Stories, the Statistics, and the Law: Why Driving While Black Matters,” Minnesota Law Review 84, no. 2 (1999): 265.32. Klaus von Beyme, “Political Theory: Empirical Political Theory,” in A New Handbook of Political Science, eds. Robert E. Goodin and Hans-Dieter Klingeman (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2003).33. Mary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas, and Jung Choi, Biology, 2nd ed. (Houston, TX: OpenStax, 2018), 1.34. Rebecca B. Morton and Kenneth C. Williams, “Experimentation in Political Science,” in The Oxford Handbook of Political Methodology, eds. Janet M. Box-Steffensmeier, Henry E. Brady, and David Collier (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, August 2008), https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view...199286546-e-14.38. Joseph M. Pierre, “The Psychology of Guns: Risk, Fear, and Motivated Reasoning,” Palgrave Communications 5, no. 1 (December 2019): 1–7. doi:10.1057/s41599-019-0373-z.39. Stanton A. Glantz, The Cigarette Papers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).42. For one interesting article on this topic, see Melissa R. Michelson, “Political Efficacy and Electoral Participation of Chicago Latinos,” Social Science Quarterly 81, no. 1 (2000): 136–150. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42864372.45. Neil Bhutta, Andrew C. Chang, Lisa J. Dettling, and Joanne W. Hsu, “Disparities in Wealth by Race and Ethnicity in the 2019 Survey of Consumer Finances,” Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve, September 28, 2020, https://www.federalreserve.gov/econr...s-20200928.htm.46. To be precise, 50 Republicans were elected to the Senate along with 48 Democrats and two Independents, but both Independents ally themselves with the Democrats.47. Eitan Hersh, Politics Is for Power: How to Move Beyond Political Hobbyism, Take Action, and Make Real Change (New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, 2020).
2 Political Behavior Is Human Behavior
2. Harold Lasswell famously defined politics as “who gets what, when, how.” Harold D. Laswell, Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, vol. 30 (New York: Whittlesey House, 1936). Our task in this section is somewhat different, as we are asking who does what.3. This word is sometimes spelled unalienable; either way, the meaning is the same.6. F. A. Hayek, Law, Legislation, and Liberty, Volume 2: The Mirage of Social Justice (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978).8. John F. Helliwell, Richard Layard, Jeffrey D. Sachs, Jan-Emmanuel De Neve, Lara B. Aknin, and Shun Wang, World Happiness Report 2021 (New York: Sustainable Development Solutions Network, 2021), https://worldhappiness.report/.9. Hubert Cheung, “Tourism in Kenya’s National Parks: A Cost-Benefit Analysis.” SURG Journal 6, no. 1 (2012): 31–40, doi:10.21083/surg.v6i1.2019.11. Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New York: Basic Books, 1974).13. William Kottmeyer, The Robin Hood Stories. (St. Louis, MO: Webster Publishing Company, 1952).14. As you might guess, there is substantial disagreement as to what constitutes a threat. One person might believe that carrying a handgun makes them safer without harming others, while some might believe that the very presence of guns makes them insecure.15. Reason (https://reason.com/) is a good source of contemporary articles advocating for libertarianism.16. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Critique of the Gotha Programme (London: Electric Book Co., [1891] 2001).17. Karl Marx, Civil War in France (New York: International Publishers, [1871] 1937), 19.18. Karl Marx, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (Chicago, IL: C. H. Kerr, [1859] 1911), 11.19. Karl Marx, Frederick Engels, and V.I. Lenin, On the Dictatorship of the Proletariat (Moscow, USSR: Progress Publishers, [1925] 1984), 243.21. For the US version of democratic socialism, see Gary J. Dorrien, American Democratic Socialism: History, Politics, Religion, and Theory (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2021).22. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, [1971] 1999).23. For Washington, DuBois, and King, see Robert Michael Franklin, Liberating Visions: Human Fulfillment and Social Justice in African-American Thought (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1990); for Wells, see Ida B. Wells, Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells, 2nd ed. (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2020).24. Louis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Making of a Black Leader, 1856–1901 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972); Louis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Wizard of Tuskegee, 1901–1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983).25. Booker T. Washington, Up from Slavery (New York: Penguin Books, [1901] 1986).26. Sean Elias, “W. E. B. Du Bois, Race, and Human Rights.” Societies without Borders 4, no. 3 (2009): 273–294. doi:10.1163/187188609X12492771031492; see also Robert Gooding-Williams, “W. E. B. Du Bois,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta (Stanford, CA: Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2020), https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/...ntries/dubois/.27. For a discussion of Wells and other female activists during the early-20th-century Progressive era, see Stacey Ellen Sheriff, “Rhetoric and Revision: Women’s Arguments for Social Justice in the Progressive Era” (PhD diss., Pennsylvania State University, 2009).33. Amartya Sen, The Idea of Justice (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2013).34. John de Coninck, Julian Culp, and Vivience Taylor, African Perspectives on Social Justice (Uganda: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2013), 6, 8.35. Viviene Taylor, “Social Justice: Reframing the ‘Social’ in Critical Discourses in Africa,” in African Perspectives on Social Justice, eds. John de Coninck, Julian Culp, and Viviene Taylor (Uganda: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2013), 14. Note: Subsidiarity is the idea that governmental power should be assigned to the smallest feasible level (e.g., the village) rather than to the national government.36. Martha C. Nussbaum, “Beyond the Social Contract: Capabilities and Global Justice. An Olaf Palme Lecture, Delivered in Oxford 19 June 2003,” Oxford Development Studies 32, no. 1 (2004): 3–8. 37. Julian Culp, “The Problem of Undemocratic Side Effects to Democracy Promotion,” in African Perspectives on Social Justice eds. John de Coninck, Julian Culp, and Viviene Taylor (Uganda: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2013), 26–44.38. Al-Hasan Al-Aidaros, Faridahwati Mohd-Shamsudin, and Kamil Md. Idris, “Ethics and Ethical Theories from an Islamic Perspective,” International Journal of Islamic Thought 4, no. 1 (December 2013): 1–13. doi:10.24035/ijit.04.2013.001. 39. Valerie Bryson, Feminist Political Theory, 3rd ed. (New York: Palgrave, 2016), 9.41. Susan Moller Okin, Justice, Gender, and the Family (New York: Basic Books, 1989).42. You can find current scholarly engagement in social justice by female political scientists at the “Women Also Know Stuff” website (https://womenalsoknowstuff.com/) with the keyword search “social justice.”43. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, [1651] 2006).44. John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, ed. Peter Laslett (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, [1689] 1960).45. David Hume, Essays: Moral, Political, Literary, ed. Eugene F. Miller (Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 1987).47. Robert A. McGuire, To Form a More Perfect Union: A New Economic Interpretation of the United States Constitution (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2003).48. Jonathan Wolff, An Introduction to Political Philosophy (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2016).50. Jason Brennan, Against Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016).51. Theodor W. Adorno, The Authoritarian Personality (New York: Harper, 1950).52. Daniel Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2011).53. Dan Ariely, Predictably Irrational: The Hidden Forces That Shape Our Decisions (New York: Harper Perennial, 2010).54. John Sides, Daron R. Shaw, Matthew Grossmann, and Keena Lipsitz, Campaigns and Elections: Rules, Reality, Strategy, Choice (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2018), 345.55. To “mobilize” your supporters is to get them not just to favor you, but to go out and actually vote for you.57. Susan Rose-Ackerman and Bonnie J. Palifka, Corruption and Government: Causes, Consequences, and Reform, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2016).59. Leonie Huddy, Lilliana Mason, and Lene Aarøe, “Expressive Partisanship: Campaign Involvement, Political Emotion, and Partisan Identity,” The American Political Science Review 109, no. 1 (2015): 1–17, https://www.jstor.org/stable/43655021.60. We use “public spirit” rather than “altruism” because altruism indicates an unselfish concern for the welfare of others, while public spirit simply states that the person considers the interests of others in making a decision, not that self-interest is sacrificed to benefit others. See Mark C. Rom, Public Spirit in the Thrift Tragedy (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996).61. See, for example, James W. H. Sonne and Don M. Gash, “Psychopathy to Altruism: Neurobiology of the Selfish–Selfless Spectrum.” Frontiers in Psychology 9 (2018), https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00575.64. Murray Edelman, Politics as Symbolic Action: Mass Arousal and Quiescence (Saint Louis, MO: Elsevier Science & Technology, 2013).65. Brain scanning technology can observe which parts of the brain “light up” during various behaviors. There is evidence that altruistic behaviors light up the same “pleasure centers” that are activated when we eat chocolate or have sex. See James Baraz and Shoshana Alexander, “The Helper’s High,” Greater Good Magazine: Science-Based Insights for a Meaningful Life, February 1, 2010, https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/art...e_helpers_high.66. Bobby Hoffman, Motivation for Learning and Performance (Boston, MA: Elsevier Academic Press, 2015); see also Ian Deweese-Boyd, “Self-Deception,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta (Stanford, CA: Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2021), https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/...elf-deception/.67. Maggie McGrath, “Why Greta Thunberg Is One of the World’s Most Powerful Women,” Forbes, December 12, 2019.68. Determinists maintain that all human behavior can be correctly predicted if all relevant facts are known. Those who believe in “free will”—or pure randomness—reject this idea.71. The rational calculation would include the probability of getting killed if they stay to fight as well as the chances of being caught, court-martialed, and potentially executed as a deserter. 72. Toby Bolsen, James N. Druckman, and Fay Lomax Cook, “The Influence of Partisan Motivated Reasoning on Public Opinion,” Political Behavior 36, no. 2 (2014): 235–262. doi:10.1007/s11109-013-9238-0.73. Thomas J. Leeper and Rune Slothuus, “Political Parties, Motivated Reasoning, and Public Opinion Formation,” Political Psychology 35, no. S1 (2014): 129–156. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.1216.74. Hessel Oosterbeek, Randolph Sloof, and Gijs van de Kuilen, “Cultural Differences in Ultimatum Game Experiments: Evidence from a Meta-Analysis,” Experimental Economics: A Journal of the Economic Science Association 7, no. 2 (2004): 171–188. doi:10.1023/B:EXEC.0000026978.14316.74.
3 Political Ideology
7. Karen Silva-Torres, Carolina Rozo-Higuera, and Daniel S. Leon, eds., Social and Political Transitions during the Left Turn in Latin America (New York: Routledge, 2022).8. Aristotle, The Politics of Aristotle, trans. Peter L. Phillips Simpson (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), bks. 3–4.10. Richard Kraut, Aristotle: Political Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 400.11. Kraut, Aristotle, 240–276.12. James S. Fishkin, Democracy When the People Are Thinking: Revitalizing Our Politics through Public Deliberation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018).13. In 2015, a Pew Research Center report found that middle-income families and individuals now constitute a minority of the total US population—something that many see as a cause of concern. See Tami Luhby, “Middle Class No Longer Dominates in the US,” CNN Business, December 9, 2015, https://money.cnn.com/2015/12/09/new...ass/index.html.14. Educational theorist Kristján Kristjánsson points out that a sizable amount of advocacy for educational reform is “anchored firmly in Aristotelian assumptions” and represents, in fact, an “Aristotle-fuelled trend” in educational policy. Kristján Kristjánsson, Aristotle, Emotions, and Education (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2007), 2, 3.15. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan; or, The Matter, Form, and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiastical and Civil, introd. Herbert W. Schneider (Indianapolis: Library of the Liberal Arts, 1977), pt. 1, bks. 13–16.16. At certain points in his famous Second Treatise of Government, Locke seems to imply that states of nature have arisen in human history. John Locke, The Second Treatise of Government, ch. 4, in Two Treatises of Government, ed. Peter Laslett (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), bk. 2.17. Locke, Second Treatise, ch. 5.18. See Gopal Sreenivasan, The Limits of Lockean Rights in Property (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).20. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, On the Social Contract: With Geneva Manuscript and Political Economy, ed. Roger D. Masters, trans. Judith R. Masters (London: Bedford, 1978), 46.22. Pete Buttigieg, Trust: America’s Best Chance (New York: Liveright, 2020).23. Eamonn Callan, Creating Citizens: Political Education and Liberal Democracy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997); Derek W. Black, “Supreme Court School Voucher Ruling Threatens American Unity and Public Education,” USA Today, July 3, 2020, https://www.usatoday.com/story/opini...mn/5359990002/.24. Locke, Second Treatise, ch. 2.25. Michael Waldman, The Fight to Vote (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2016).26. Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005).27. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty, ed. Gertrude Himmelfarb (New York; Penguin, 1988), chs. 2, 4.28. See Franklin D. Roosevelt, “Commonwealth Club Address (1932),” in American Political Thought: Readings and Materials, ed. Keith E. Whittington (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 508.29. F. A. Hayek, The Road to Serfdom: Text and Documents, ed. Bruce Caldwell (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007).34. See Neil Harding, Leninism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996).35. See Neil Harding, “Leninism and Stalinism,” in Leninism, 243–263.36. Stanley G. Payne, A History of Fascism, 1914–1945 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995).37. Richard Steigmann-Gall, Holy Reich: Nazi Conceptions of Christianity, 1919–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).38. Martin Gilbert, The Holocaust: A History of the Jews of Europe during the Second World War (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1986).40. Deng Xiaoping, “Building Socialism with a Specifically Chinese Character,” The People’s Daily, June 30, 1984.43. See Joseph Bottum, “Social Conservatism and the New Fusionism,” in Varieties of Conservatism in America, ed. Peter Berkowitz (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 2004), 31–47.45. See Jeffrey Bell, The Case for Polarized Politics: Why America Needs Social Conservatism (New York: Encounter Books, 2012).46. See Paul Starr, “Center-Left Liberalism,” in The Oxford Companion to American Politics, ed. David Coates, vol. 1 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).48. Buttigieg, Trust, 137.49. Andrew Heywood, Political Ideologies: An Introduction (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012).50. Heywood, Political Ideologies, 264.53. R. Claire Snyder, “What Is Third Wave Feminism? A New Directions Essay,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 34, no. 1 (Autumn 2008), https://doi.org/10.1086/588436; Constance Grady, “The Waves of Feminism, and Why People Keep Fighting over Them, Explained,” Vox, July 20, 2018, https://www.vox.com/2018/3/20/169555...d-third-fourth.63. Os Guinness, The Dust of Death: The Sixties Counterculture and How It Changed America Forever (1973; repr., Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2020).66. See Vivek Ramaswamy, Woke, Inc.: Inside Corporate America’s Social Justice Scam (New York: Center Street, 2021).
4 Civil Liberties
2. Patrick Reilly, “Three Washington State Schools Put on Lockdown amid Anti-mask Protests,” New York Post, September 4, 2021, https://nypost.com/2021/09/04/anti-m...state-schools/; Soo Kim, “Anti-mask Protests across Europe as Coronavirus Cases Rise 4 Days in a Row,” Newsweek, August 17, 2020, https://www.newsweek.com/coronavirus...france-1525485.8. Franck Kuwonu, “Africa’s Freedom Struggles and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” Africa Renewal, December 2018–March 2019, https://www.un.org/africarenewal/mag...ch-2019/africa’s-freedom-struggles-and-universal-declaration-human-rights; “Human Rights Day,” Parliament of the Republic of South Africa, accessed January 27, 2022, https://www.parliament.gov.za/project-event-details/2; Penelope Andrews, “South Africa,” in Encyclopedia of Human Rights, ed. David P. Forsythe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 4:481–491, https://digitalcommons.nyls.edu/cgi/...icles_chapters.12. “Fact Sheet No. 2 (Rev. 1), The International Bill of Human Rights,” Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, United Nations, accessed January 27, 2022, https://www.ohchr.org/documents/publ...et2rev.1en.pdf; Beverly McLachlin, “Bills of Rights in Common Law Countries,” The International and Comparative Law Quarterly 51, no. 2 (April 2002): 197–203, https://www.jstor.org/stable/3663226.20. Commission on Unalienable Rights, Report of the Commission on Unalienable Rights, August 26, 2020, https://www.state.gov/wp-content/upl...ble-Rights.pdf; Vicki C. Jackson, “Positive Obligations, Positive Rights, and Constitutional Amendment,” in Boundaries of State, Boundaries of Rights: Human Rights, Private Actors, and Positive Obligations, ed. Tsvi Kahana and Anat Scolnicov (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 109–128, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107588943.006.22. “We do not want the Government (i.e., the Ohio Elections Commission) deciding what is political truth—for fear that the Government might persecute those who criticize it. Instead, in a democracy, the voters should decide.” Susan B. Anthony List et al. v. Ohio Elections Commission, 45 F. Supp. 3d 765 (S.D. Ohio 2014), https://casetext.com/case/list-v-ohi...ctions-commn-1; affirmed, 814 F.3d 466 (6th Cir. 2016).23. Germany Const., art. V, ¶ 2.29. U.S. Const. amend. V.44. A/RES/217(III), art. 12.46. “Senegalese Lawmakers Draft Tougher Laws against LGBT,” Reuters, December 13, 2021, https://news.yahoo.com/senegalese-la...214135599.html; “Mapping Anti-Gay Laws in Africa,” Amnesty International UK, May 31, 2018, https://www.amnesty.org.uk/lgbti-lgb...geria-cameroon; Report: The State of Human Rights for LGBT People in Africa (Washington, DC: Human Rights Campaign Foundation and Human Rights First, 2014), https://www.humanrightsfirst.org/res...-people-africa.47. Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967).52. Restrictions on Women’s Religious Attire (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, April 5, 2016), https://www.pewforum.org/2016/04/05/...igious-attire/; Brenda J. Norton, A Question of Balance: A Study of Legal Equality and State Neutrality in the United States, France, and the Netherlands (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2016).53. The Fair Credit Reporting Act of 1970 protects personal financial information collected by credit reporting agencies. The Privacy Act of 1974 prevents the unauthorized disclosure of personal information held by the federal government. The Financial Services Modernization Act of 1999 requires financial institutions to provide customers with a privacy policy and to safeguard their information.62. China Const. ch. 2, art. XL.64. A/RES/217(III), art. 19.70. Germany Const. art. V, ¶ 1.71. Manasi Gopalakrishnan, “Germany Treads Thin Line between Hate Speech and Free Expression,” DW Akademie, April 19, 2016, https://p.dw.com/p/1IYXg.75. U.S. Const. amend. I.76. Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. 1, 15–16 (1947).77. One current controversy in this area is conversion therapy, or intervention by religious practitioners intended to “cure” children of LGBTQ+ sexual orientations or gender identities. See “Conversion ‘Therapy’ Laws,” Movement Advancement Project, last updated July 16, 2021, https://www.lgbtmap.org/img/maps/cit...on-therapy.pdf.84. A/RES/217(III), art. 13.85. Crandall v. Nevada, 73 U.S. 35 (1868); United States v. Wheeler, 254 U.S. 281 (1920).87. The court struck down one-year residency requirements as interfering with the right to interstate travel but did hold that shorter residency requirements may be permissible in certain circumstances. Shapiro v. Thompson, 394 U.S. 618 (1969); Dunn v. Blumstein, 405 U.S. 330 (1972); Memorial Hospital v. Maricopa County, 415 U.S. 250 (1974); Attorney Gen. of New York v. Soto-Lopez, 476 U.S. 898 (1986); Baldwin v. Fish and Game Commission of Montana, 436 U.S. 371 (1978).95. A/RES/217(III), art. 14–15.100. “Refugees are persons who are outside their country of origin for reasons of feared persecution, conflict, generalized violence, or other circumstances that have seriously disturbed public order and, as a result, require international protection. The refugee definition can be found in the 1951 Convention and regional refugee instruments, as well as UNHCR’s Statute.” Source: “Definitions,” Refugees and Migrants, United Nations, last modified July 22, 2016, https://refugeesmigrants.un.org/definitions.105. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, “Understanding Human Rights and Climate Change” (submission, 21st Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2015), https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issu...ange/COP21.pdf.106. UN General Assembly, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Issue of Human Rights Obligations Relating to the Enjoyment of a Safe, Clean, Healthy and Sustainable Environment, A/73/88, ¶¶ 8, 55 (July 19, 2018), https://undocs.org/A/73/188.108. Juliana v. United States, 947 F.3d 1159 (9th Cir. 2020), https://cdn.ca9.uscourts.gov/datasto...7/18-36082.pdf; “Juliana v. United States: Ninth Circuit Court Holds That Developing and Supervising Plan to Mitigate Anthropogenic Climate Change Would Exceed Remedial Powers of Article III Court,” Harvard Law Review 134, no. 5 (March 2021), https://harvardlawreview.org/2021/03...united-states/; “Juliana v. United States,” Our Children’s Trust, accessed February 20, 2022, https://www.ourchildrenstrust.org/juliana-v-us; “Juliana v. United States,” Climate Change Litigation Databases, Sabin Center for Climate Change Law, last modified December 6, 2021, http://climatecasechart.com/climate-...united-states/.
5 Political Participation and Public Opinion
4. Lawrence J. Saha and Murray Print, “Student School Elections and Political Engagement: A Cradle of Democracy?,” International Journal of Educational Research 49, no. 1 (2010): 22.11. Before becoming a state, Wyoming granted women unrestricted voting rights in 1869. However, this only applied to territorial matters, not national elections. Upon achieving statehood in 1890, Wyoming affirmed voting rights for women in its state constitution.15. Mark N. Franklin, “Electoral Engineering and Cross-National Turnout Differences: What Role for Compulsory Voting?,” British Journal of Political Science 29, no. 1 (January 1999): 205–216, https://www.jstor.org/stable/194302.16. Robert W. Jackman, “Political Institutions and Voter Turnout in the Industrial Democracies,” American Political Science Review 81, no. 2 (June 1987): 405–423, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1961959.17. Jeffrey A. Karp and Susan A. Banducci, “Political Efficacy and Participation in Twenty-Seven Democracies: How Electoral Systems Shape Political Behaviour,” British Journal of Political Science 38, no. 2 (April 2008): 311–334, https://www.jstor.org/stable/27568347.18. Aie-Rie Lee, “The Quality of Social Capital and Political Participation in South Korea,” Journal of East Asian Studies 10, no. 3 (September–December 2010): 483–505, https://www.jstor.org/stable/23418868.19. Joseph L. Klesner, “Social Capital and Political Participation in Latin America: Evidence from Argentina, Chile, Mexico, and Peru,” Latin American Research Review 42, no. 2 (2007): 1–32, https://www.jstor.org/stable/4499368.20. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).22. Ruth Dassonneville, “Age and Voting,” in The Sage Handbook of Electoral Behaviour, ed. Kai Arzheimer, Jocelyn Evans, and Michael S. Lewis-Beck (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017), 137.23. Yosef Bhatti, Kasper M. Hansen, and Hanna Wass, “The Relationship between Age and Turnout: A Roller-Coaster Ride,” Electoral Studies 31, no. 3 (September 2012): 588–593.24. Achim Goerres, “Why Are Older People More Likely to Vote? The Impact of Ageing on Electoral Turnout in Europe,” British Journal of Politics and International Relations 9, no. 1 (February 2007): 90–121.25. Robert H. Binstock, “Older People and Political Engagement: From Avid Voters to ‘Cooled-Out Marks,’” Generations: Journal of the American Society on Aging 30, no. 4 (Winter 2006–2007): 24–30, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26555473.26. Susan A. McManus, Young v. Old: Generational Combat in the 21st Century (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), 36.27. Andrea Louise Campbell, How Policies Make Citizens: Senior Political Activism and the American Welfare State (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), 14.29. Christoper J. Anderson and Pablo Beramendi, “Income, Inequality, and Electoral Participation,” in Democracy, Inequality, and Representation: A Comparative Perspective, ed. Beramendi and Anderson (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2008), 278.37. Benjamin Highton and Arthur L. Burris, “New Perspectives on Latino Voter Turnout in the United States,” American Politics Research 30, no. 3 (May 2002): 285–306.43. International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance44. Solijonov, Voter Turnout Trends46. André Blais and Simon Labbé St-Vincent, “Personality Traits, Political Attitudes and the Propensity to Vote,” European Journal of Political Research 50, no. 3 (May 2011): 395–417.47. Stephen D. Shaffer, “A Multivariate Explanation of Decreasing Turnout in Presidential Elections, 1960–1976,” American Journal of Political Science 25, no. 1 (February 1981): 68–95, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2110913.48. C. Rallings, M. Thrasher, and G. Borisyuk, “Seasonal Factors, Voter Fatigue and the Costs of Voting,” Electoral Studies 22, no. 1 (March 2003): 65–79.55. Robert DeFina and Lance Hannon, “The Legacy of Black Lynching and Contemporary Segregation in the South,” The Review of Black Political Economy 38, no. 2 (January 2011): 171.57. Paul A. Djupe and J. Tobin Grant, “Religious Institutions and Political Participation in America,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 40, no. 2 (June 2011): 303–314.60. Cliff Zukin et al., A New Engagement? Political Participation, Civic Life, and the Changing American Citizen (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 7.61. Robert D. Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy, with Robert Leonardi and Raffaella Y. Nanetti (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993).68. Chapter 8: Interest Groups, Political Parties, and Elections will discuss some of these ideas in further detail.72. Elizabeth Theiss-Morse, “Conceptualizations of Good Citizenship and Political Participation,” Political Behavior 15, no. 4 (December 1993): 355–380, https://www.jstor.org/stable/586463.77. Leticia Bode, “Political News in the News Feed: Learning Politics from Social Media,” Mass Communication and Society 19, no. 1 (2016): 24–48.78. Daniel Halpern, Sebastián Valenzuela, and James E. Katz, “We Face, I Tweet: How Different Social Media Influence Political Participation through Collective and Internal Efficacy,” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 22, no. 6 (November 2017): 320–336, https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12198.79. Shelley Boulianne, “Social Media Use and Participation: A Meta-analysis of Current Research,” Information, Communication & Society 18, no. 5 (2015): 524–538.82. Bence Bago, David G. Rand, and Gordon Pennycook, “Fake News, Fast and Slow: Deliberation Reduces Belief in False (but Not True) News Headlines,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 149, no. 8 (2020): 1608–1613.87. Fabiana Machado, Carlos Scartascini, and Mariano Tommasi, “Political Institutions and Street Protests in Latin America,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 55, no. 3 (June 2011): 342, https://www.jstor.org/stable/23049890.88. Lynette H. Ong and Donglin Han, “What Drives People to Protest in an Authoritarian Country? Resources and Rewards vs. Risks of Protests in Urban and Rural China,” Political Studies 67, no. 1 (February 2019): 224–248.89. Catherine Dumas et al., “E-petitioning as Collective Political Action in We the People” (conference paper, iConference 2015 Proceedings, University of California, Irvine Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences, March 24–27, 2015), http://hdl.handle.net/2142/73665.91. Brian D. Loader, Ariadne Vromen, and Michael A. Xenos, “The Networked Young Citizen: Social Media, Political Participation and Civic Engagement,” Information, Communication & Society 17, no. 2 (2014): 143, https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2013.871571.100. Putnam, Bowling Alone, 21.101. Ken’ichi Ikeda and Sean E. Richey, “Japanese Network Capital: The Impact of Social Networks on Japanese Political Participation,” Political Behavior 27, no. 3 (September 2005): 239–260.102. Klesner, “Social Capital,” 29.103. Sebastián Valenzuela, Namsu Park, and Kerk F. Kee, “Is There Social Capital in a Social Network Site? Facebook Use and College Students’ Life Satisfaction, Trust, and Participation,” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 14, no. 4 (July 2009): 875–901, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01474.x.104. Homero Gil de Zúñiga, Nakwon Jung, and Sebastián Valenzuela, “Social Media Use for News and Individuals’ Social Capital, Civic Engagement and Political Participation,” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 17, no. 3 (April 2012): 329, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2012.01574.x.105. Lambe Kayode Mustapha, Victor Olanrewaju Gbonegun, and Maryam Lasisi Mustapha, “Social Media Use, Social Capital, and Political Participation among Nigerian University Students,” Trípodos, no. 39 (2016): 127–143, https://raco.cat/index.php/Tripodos/...le/view/335040.106. Lee B. Erickson, “Social Media, Social Capital, and Seniors: The Impact of Facebook on Bonding and Bridging Social Capital of Individuals over 65,” (conference paper, AMCIS 2011 Proceedings, 2011), https://aisel.aisnet.org/amcis2011_submissions/85/.107. Ronald La Due Lake and Robert Huckfeldt, “Social Capital, Social Networks, and Political Participation,” Political Psychology 19, no. 3 (1998): 583, https://www.jstor.org/stable/3792178.109. Jon A. Krosnick, “Government Policy and Citizen Passion: A Study of Issue Publics in Contemporary America,” Political Behavior 12, no. 1 (1990): 60, https://www.jstor.org/stable/586285.110. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1922), 4.113. Vincent Price, “Social Identification and Public Opinion: Effects of Communicating Group Conflict,” Public Opinion Quarterly 53, no. 2 (1989): 198, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2749523.114. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1961), 68.116. Bernard R. Barelson, Paul F. Lazarsfeld, and William N. McPhee, Voting: A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign (1954; repr., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 109.119. Benjamin I. Page and Robert Y. Shapiro, “Presidents as Opinion Leaders: Some New Evidence,” Policy Studies Journal 12, no. 4 (1984): 649–661.120. Angus Campbell et al., The American Voter (1960; repr., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 271.121. Elihu Katz and Paul F. Lazarsfeld, Personal Influence: The Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communications (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1955), 3.122. Robert M. Entman, “How the Media Affect What People Think: An Information Processing Approach,” Journal of Politics 51, no. 2 (1989): 347–370, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2131346.123. Key, Public Opinion, 401–405.124. Benjamin I. Page and Robert Y. Shapiro, The Rational Public: Fifty Years of Trends in Americans’ Policy Preferences (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 354.125. John R. Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 81.126. Shanto Iyengar, Is Anyone Responsible? How Television Frames Political Issues (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991).127. Jean M. Converse, Survey Research in the United States: Roots and Emergence, 1890–1960 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 1.129. Nicolaos E. Synodinos and Shigeru Yamada, “Response Rate Trends in Japanese Surveys,” International Journal of Public Opinion Research 12, no. 1 (March 2000): 48–72.131. Stephen J. Blumberg and Julian V. Luke, Wireless Substitution: Early Release of Estimates from the National Health Interview Survey, January–June 2020 (Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, February 2021), https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhis/e...202102-508.pdf.132. Kenneth A. Rasinski, “The Effect of Question Wording on Public Support for Government Spending,” Public Opinion Quarterly 53, no. 3 (Autumn 1989): 388–394, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2749127.133. Jonathon P. Schuldt, Sara H. Konrath, and Norbert Schwarz, “‘Global Warming’ or ‘Climate Change’? Whether the Planet Is Warming Depends on Question Wording,” Public Opinion Quarterly 75, no. 1 (Spring 2011): 115–124, https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfq073.135. Patricia G. Moorman et al., “Participation Rates in a Case-Control Study: The Impact of Age, Race, and Race of Interviewer,” Annals of Epidemiology 9, no. 3 (April 1999): 188–195.136. Leonie Huddy et al., “The Effect of Interviewer Gender on the Survey Response,” Political Behavior 19, no. 3 (September 1997): 197–220, https://www.jstor.org/stable/586516.137. Benjamin I. Page and Robert Y. Shapiro, “Effects of Public Opinion on Policy,” American Political Science Review 77, no. 1 (March 1983): 175–190, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1956018.138. Paul Burstein, “The Impact of Public Opinion on Public Policy: A Review and an Agenda,” Political Research Quarterly 56, no. 1 (March 2003): 29–40, https://www.jstor.org/stable/3219881.139. Larry M. Bartels, “Constituency Opinion and Congressional Policy Making: The Reagan Defense Build Up,” American Political Science Review 85, no. 2 (June 1991): 457–474, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1963169.144. Benjamin E. Goldsmith and Yusaku Horiuchi, “Spinning the Globe? US Public Diplomacy and Foreign Public Opinion,” Journal of Politics 71, no. 3 (July 2009): 1.150. Frank Newport, Polling Matters: Why Leaders Must Listen to the Wisdom of the People (New York: Warner Books, 2004), 1–2.
6 The Fundamentals of Group Political Activity
2. Thunberg’s activism has earned her many awards, such as being selected as Time “Person of the Year” in 2019. Alter, Charlotte, Suyin Haynes, and Justin Worland, “Greta Thunberg is Time’s 2019 Person of the Year,” Time, December 23, 2019, https://time.com/person-of-the-year-...reta-thunberg/.4. Subsequent chapters will examine civil rights, as well as the structure and behavior of specific categories of groups, such as interest groups, political parties, and legislatures.8. An excellent original statement regarding socialization is found in Berger; Haegel provides an update on the controversies in the field. Peter L. Berger, The Social Construction of Reality; a Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966); Florence Haegel, “Political Socialisation: Out of Purgatory?” European Journal of Sociology / Archives Européennes De Sociologie 61, no. 3 (December 2020): 333–64. doi:10.1017/S000397562000017X.9. See, for example, Anke Hufer, Anna Elena Kornadt, Christian Kandler, and Rainer Riemann, “Genetic and Environmental Variation in Political Orientation in Adolescence and Early Adulthood: A Nuclear Twin Family Analysis,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 118, no. 4 (2020): 762–76. doi:10.1037/pspp0000258.12. The term families is used in the broadest sense to include those who sheltered you and raised you as a child. This includes caregivers in institutional settings, extended biological and nonbiological relatives, and other possibilities.15. Some countries have taken steps to ensure that political parties do not exist strictly along ethnic or religious lines. Kenya, for example, explicitly prohibits ethnically determined political parties. See John Rabuogi Ahere, “Party Politics in Kenya and South Africa: The Conundrum of Ethnic and Race Relations.” Scientific Research 7, no. 5 (May, 2020): 1–24. doi:10.4236/oalib.1106383.17. Peter K. Hatemi and Christopher Ojeda, “The Role of Child Perception and Motivation in Political Socialization.” British Journal of Political Science 51 (3): 1097–118. doi:10.1017/S0007123419000516.20. Because these data include 15-to-17-year-olds, they are not directly comparable to the United States. They still show the substantial variation across countries. Devon Haynie, “Countries Where the Most Young Adults Live with Their Parents,” U.S. News & World Report, October 5, 2016, //www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/articles/2016-10-05/countries-where-the-most-young-adults-live-with-their-parents.23. If first-generation immigrants are disconnected from politics, it appears that the political socialization of the second generation may be later and more prolonged. Roberto F. Carlos, “Late to the Party: On the Prolonged Partisan Socialization Process of Second-Generation Americans,” Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics 3 (2): 381–408. doi:10.1017/rep.2018.21.24. Political scientists know a bit more about how family structure and changes in structure affect such political behaviors as voting. See, for example, Julianna Sandell and Eric Plutzer, “Families, Divorce and Voter Turnout in the US,” Political Behavior 27 (2005): 133–62. doi:10.1007/s11109-005-3341-9. Only a small amount of research has focused on family structure and political socialization. James W. Clarke, “Family Structure and Political Socialization among Urban Black Children,” American Journal of Political Science 17, no. 2 (May 1973): 302–15, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2110522.25. Florence Haegel, “Political Socialization: Out of Purgatory?” European Journal of Sociology / Archives Européennes De Sociologie 61, no. 3 (December 2020): 333–64. doi:10.1017/S000397562000017X.26. Jennifer L. Hochschild, Outsiders No More? Models of Immigrant Political Incorporation (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2013).27. Sky L. Ammann, “Creating Partisan ‘Footprints’: The Influence of Parental Religious Socialization on Party Identification,” Social Science Quarterly 95, no. 5 (December 2014): 1360–80. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44072754.28. Shanna Pearson-Merkowitz and James G. Gimple, “Religion and Political Socialization” in The Oxford Handbook of Religion and American Politics, eds. Corwin E. Smidt, Lyman A. Kellstedt, and James L. Guth (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2009).30. See, for example, Andrew R. Flores and Maisy Morrison, “Potential Differences between the Political Attitudes of People with Same-Sex Parents and People with Different-Sex Parents: An Exploratory Assessment of First-Year College Students,” PLoS One 16, no. 2 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246929; Landon, Schnabel, “Sexual Orientation and Social Attitudes,” Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World (January 2018), doi:10.1177/2378023118769550.31. Gabriel Abraham Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015), doi:10.1515/9781400874569.32. Richard Wike, “5 Ways Americans and Europeans Are Different,” Pew Research Center, April 19, 2016. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tan...are-different/. Note that this survey asked only Americans and Europeans. If it had asked people living in other countries, the differences would likely be even greater.37. Martin Gilens and Benjamin I. Page, “Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens,” Perspectives on Politics 12, no. 3 (2014): 564–81, doi:10.1017/S1537592714001595.39. W. Penn Handwerker, “The Construct Validity of Cultures: Cultural Diversity, Culture Theory, and a Method for Ethnography.” American Anthropologist 104, no. 1 (2002): 106–22.44. Language evolves, and what was commonly called “gay” in the 1900s is generally referred to today as LGBTQ.45. The reader should note that there is not one single African American culture, so referring to it in singular terms is a generalization.50. For the seminal book on this topic, see Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action Public Goods and the Theory of Groups (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965).51. The rules can become quite complicated. For example, a majority could be defined as 50 percent plus one of all eligible voters, of all voters present, or of all voters casting votes, among other possibilities.52. In the United States, conviction requires jury unanimity and each member of the jury is instructed to vote to convict only if they believe the evidence shows the suspect’s guilt “beyond reasonable doubt.” For more on this idea, see Chapter 11.53. One credible source has estimated that about 4 percent of persons convicted of murder in the United States are likely not guilty. Samuel R. Gross, Barbara O'Brien, Chen Hu, and Edward Kennedy, “Rate of False Conviction of Criminal Defendants Who Are Sentenced to Death” (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, University of Michigan Public Law Research Paper No. 405, U of Michigan Law & Econ Research Paper No. 14-011, 2014), https://ssrn.com/abstract=2431520.54. Scott Snyder, Domestic Constraints on South Korean Foreign Policy (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 2018).56. In 2015, the US Supreme Court ruled that the states could not prohibit same-sex marriage. By the time the Supreme Court ruled, same-sex marriage was already legal in 37 states. “State-by-State History of Banning and Legalizing Gay Marriage,” ProCon/Encyclopaedia Britannica, last modified February 16, 2016, https://gaymarriage.procon.org/state...-gay-marriage/.57. Oliver E. Williamson, “The Economics of Organization: The Transaction Cost Approach on JSTOR,” American Journal of Sociology 87, no. 3 (November 1981): 548–77. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2778934.58. Toby Ord, The Precipice: Existential Risk and the Future of Humanity (New York: Hachette Books, 2020).59. Adam Smith and Knud Haakonssen, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002).63. Jouni Paavola, “Climate Change: The Ultimate Tragedy of the Commons?” in Property in Land and Other Resources, eds. Daniel H. Cole and Elinor Ostrom (Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, 2012) 417–33. https://www.lincolninst.edu/sites/de...e-change_0.pdf67. Humans have been aware of the free rider problem since antiquity. For a history and analysis, see Russell Hardin and Garrett Cullity, “The Free Rider Problem,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta (Winter 2020), https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/...es/free-rider/.68. Jane A. Leggett, The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris Agreement: A Summary (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2020).71. The exact number of years in the example is not critically important. What is important is that the overall number of years is lowest when both suspects “cooperate” and highest when both “defect.”72. While the classic prisoner’s dilemma example uses two “suspects,” any two actors, including individuals, political parties, or entire countries, can be involved in prisoner’s dilemmas.73. Per capita emissions are the total CO2 emissions for each country divided by the number of people living in that country.74. Hannah Ritchie, “Where in the World Do People Emit the Most CO2?” Our World in Data, October 4, 2019, https://ourworldindata.org/per-capita-co2; Johannes Friedrich, Mengpin Ge, and Andrew Pickens, “This Interactive Chart Shows Changes in the World's Top 10 Emitters,” World Resources Institute, December 10, 2020, https://www.wri.org/insights/interac...op-10-emitters.78. Adele Cecile Morris, Ian Parry, and Roberton C. Williams, Implementing a US Carbon Tax: Challenges and Debates (New York: Routledge, 2015). doi:10.4324/9781315747682.81. Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015).86. Larissa Batrancea et al. “Trust and Power as Determinants of Tax Compliance across 44 Nations,” Journal of Economic Psychology 74 (October 2019): 102191, doi:10.1016/j.joep.2019.102191.
7 Civil Rights
2. Kay Lehman Schlozman, Sidney Verba, and Henry E. Brady, The Unheavenly Chorus: Unequal Political Voice and the Broken Promise of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 6.6. Maru Bazezew, “Constitutionalism,” Mizan Law Review 3, no. 2 (September 2009): 358–369.17. Lewis M. Killian, “What or Who Is a ‘Minority’?” Michigan Sociological Review, no. 10 (Fall 1996): 18–31.19. Michael Hechter and Dina Okamoto, “Political Consequences of Minority Group Formation,” Annual Review of Political Science 4, no. 1 (June 2001): 189–215.27. Kowal, “Improbable Victory.”48. Shyam K. Sriram, “Of Acculturative Stress and Integration Distress: The Resettlement Challenges of Bhutanese Refugees in Metro Atlanta,” South Asian Diaspora 12, no. 1 (2020): 93–108.55. David W. Adams, Education for Extinction (Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 1995), 27.61. The executive order did not mention any racial or ethnic category of individual. (“A Controversial Executive Order Leads to Internment Camps,” Constitution Daily, February 19, 2021, https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/...ernment-camps.). The largest share of those subjected to Executive Order 9066 were Japanese Americans, although individuals of German and Italian descent were also affected.62. War Relocation Authority, Japanese-Americans in Relocation Centers, March 1943, The War Relocation Authority & the Incarceration of Japanese-Americans During World War II Collection, Harry S. Truman Library and Museum, https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/librar...A&pagenumber=1.66. As cited by Andrea Nicholson, Minh Dang, and Zoe Trodd, “A Full Freedom: Contemporary Survivors’ Definitions of Slavery,” Human Rights Law Review 18, no. 4 (2018): 689–704.74. Less discussed is how the ambiguous language of the 13th Amendment may have ended slavery but laid the groundwork for the mass incarceration of African Americans. Students should watch Ana DuVernay’s 2016 documentary 13th to understand this issue.77. Candice Delmas and Kimberley Brownlee, “Civil Disobedience,” in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta, revised June 2, 2021, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/c...-disobedience/; John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1971), 320.78. G. Hendrick, “The Influence of Thoreau’s ‘Civil Disobedience’ on Gandhi’s Satyagraha,” New England Quarterly (1956): 462–471.79. Brent Powell, “Henry David Thoreau, Martin Luther King Jr., and the American Tradition of Protest,” OAH Magazine of History 9, no. 2 (1995): 26–29.80. Bob Pepperman Taylor, The Routledge Guidebook to Thoreau’s Civil Disobedience (New York: Routledge, 2014).88. Aldon Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986).90. Gabe Granillo, “The Role of Social Media in Social Movements,” Portland Monthly, June 10, 2021, https://www.pdxmonthly.com/news-and-...cial-movements; Shira Ovide, “How Social Media Has Changed Civil Rights Protests,” The New York Times, last updated December 17, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/18/t...-protests.html.91. Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movement.92. Allison Calhoun-Brown, “Upon This Rock: The Black Church, Nonviolence, and the Civil Rights Movement,” PS: Political Science and Politics 33, no. 2 (2000): 169–174.108. Zachary Holladay, “Public Interest Litigation in India as a Paradigm for Developing Nations,” Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 19, no. 2 (2012): 555–573, 557.111. Maha Jweied and Miranda Jolicoeur, “Community-Based Paralegals in Africa,” in Expert Working Group Report: International Perspectives on Indigent Defense (Washington, DC: US Department of Justice), https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/236022.pdf.113. Alexander M. Bickel, “Citizenship in the American Constitution,” Arizona Law Review 15 (1973): 369.118. Calvin Naito and Esther Scott, Against All Odds: The Campaign in Congress for Japanese American Redress (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Kennedy School, 1990), 4.
8 Interest Groups, Political Parties, and Elections
2. Lillian Faderman, “Remembering the Activists Who Helped Make HIV/AIDS Research Possible,” Washington Post, March 12, 2019.11. DGB—German Trade Union Confederation (website), accessed June 10, 2021, https://en.dgb.de.20. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (website), accessed March 1, 2021, https://naacp.org.24. This concept is also covered in Chapter 6: The Fundamentals of Group Political Activity.25. Robert H. Salisbury, “An Exchange Theory of Interest Groups,” Midwest Journal of Political Science 13, no. 1 (1969): 1–32, www.jstor.org/stable/2110212.28. Salisbury, “An Exchange Theory of Interest Groups,” (1969).29. See also Chapter 6: The Fundamentals of Group Political Activity.31. E. E. Schattschneider, The Semisovereign People: A Realist’s View of Democracy in America (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1960), 35.32. Theodore Lowi, “The Public Philosophy: Interest-Group Liberalism,” The American Political Science Review 61, no. 1 (1967): 5–24, www.jstor.org/stable/1953872.36. Nellie Bowles, “Hurt by Lockdowns, California’s Small Businesses Push to Recall Governor,” New York Times, February 19, 2021.37. Sam Husseini, “Religious Beliefs Are Struck Down as Defense for Nuclear Protest,” The Nation, October 31, 2019.39. Florian Weiler and Matthais Brändli, “Inside versus Outside Lobbying: How the Institutional Framework Shapes the Lobbying Behaviour of Interest Groups,” European Journal of Political Research 54, no. 4 (November 2015): 745–766, https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.12106.47. Jeff Maskell, Lobbying Congress: An Overview of Legal Provisions and Congressional Ethics Rules, CRS Report No. RL31126 (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2007), https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL31126.pdf.49. Craig Holman and William Luneburg, “Lobbying and Transparency: A Comparative Analysis of Regulatory Reform.” Interest Groups & Advocacy 1 (2012): 75–104.51. Gina Davidson, “Poll Shows Drop for Scottish Independence Support as Sir John Curtice Claims Results Shows 'Cooling' over UK Split,” The Scotsman, June 27, 2021, https://www.scotsman.com/news/politi...-split-3287969; Ben Walker, “More Than Two-Thirds of Young Scots Now Back Independence,” The New Statesman, September 15, 2020, https://www.newstatesman.com/politic...k-independence.52. Marjorie Randon Hershey, “Political Parties as Mechanisms of Social Choice,” in Handbook of Party Politics, eds. Richard S. Katz and William J. Crotty (London: Sage, 2005), 75–88.53. Jeffrey M. Berry and Clyde Wilcox, The Interest Group Society (New York: Routledge, 2018).55. José Antonio Crespo, “The Liberal Democratic Party in Japan: Conservative Domination.” International Political Science Review 16, no. 2 (April 1995): 199–209, doi:10.1177/019251219501600206.60. Nicholas Riccardi, “Republicans See Bright Spot in Voter Registration Push,” AP News, October 20, 2020.61. Nick Corasaniti, Annie Karni, and Isabella Grullón Paz, “‘There’s Nothing Left’: Why Thousands of Republicans Are Leaving the Party,” The New York Times, February 10, 2021.64. Elmer E. Schnattschneider, Party Government, American Government in Action (New York: Routledge, 2014).65. Lester G. Seligman, “Political Recruitment and Party Structure: A Case Study,” American Political Science Review 55, no. 1 (March 1960): 77–86.66. Jo Silvester, “Recruiting Politicians: Designing Competency-Based Selection for UK Parliamentary Candidates,” in The Psychology of Politicians (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 21–38.69. Gerhard Loewenberg, “The Remaking of the German Party System: Political & Socio-economic Factors” Polity 1, no. 1 (1968): 86–113, www.jstor.org/stable/3233977.72. US Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958-1960, Cuba, Volume VI, eds. John P. Glennon and Ronald D. Landa (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1991) Document 278, https://history.state.gov/historical...frus1958-60v06.73. US Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, Executive Summary, 2018 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Eritrea, (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 2018), https://www.state.gov/reports/2018-c...tices/eritrea/.74. Martin P. Wattenburg, The Rise of Candidate-Centered Politics: Presidential Elections of the 1980s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).75. Thomas E. Patterson, We the People (New York: McGraw Hill, 2014), 258.76. Gerald Seib and James Hagarty, “H. Ross Perot, Texas Billionaire Who Twice Ran for President, Dies at 89,” The Wall Street Journal, July 9, 2019.77. Mike Cummings, “Polarization in US Politics Starts with Weak Political Parties,” Yale News, November 17, 2020.78. Peter Mair and Ingrid van Biezen, “Party Membership in Twenty European Democracies, 1980–2000,” Party Politics 7, no. 1 (January 2001): 5–21.79. Paul Whiteley, “Is the Party Over? The Decline of Party Activism and Membership across the Democratic World,” Party Politics 17, no. 1 (June 2010): 21–44.83. Jason Seawright, Collapse: The Roots of Crisis in Peru and Venezuela (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2012).85. Eve Warburton and Edward Aspinall, “Explaining Indonesia’s Democratic Regression: Structure, Agency and Popular Opinion,” Contemporary Southeast Asia 41, no. 2 (August 2019): 255–85, www.jstor.org/stable/26798854.86. Gerald Pomper, “The Concept of Elections in Political Theory,” The Review of Politics 29, no. 4 (October 1967): 478–91, www.jstor.org/stable/1405722.88. Theodore J. Lowi, Benjamin Ginsberg, Kenneth A. Shepsle, and Stephen Ansolabehere, American Government: Power and Purpose (New York: W. W. Norton, 2017), 428.89. Michael Hiltzik, “With Prop 22, Uber and Lyft Used Their Wealth to Reshape Labor Law in Their Sole Interest,” Los Angeles Times, November 4, 2020.98. Robert Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000).100. Nadia Fiorino, Emma Galli, and Nicola Pontarollo, “Does Social Capital Affect Voter Turnout? Evidence from Italy,” Social Indicators Research 156, (February 2021): 289–309.101. Maneesh Arora, Hannah Kim, and Mary Mendoza, “A Cross-National Study of the Effects of Social Capital on Voter Turnout” (paper presented at the Midwest Political Science Association Annual Conference, Chicago, April 10, 2016).102. “Afghanistan’s First Presidential Election Not Perfect, but Sets Stage for Journey towards Vigorous Democracy, Security Council Told,” Security Council, United Nations, October 14, 2004, https://www.un.org/press/en/2004/sc8216.doc.htm.105. Wahabuddin Ra’ees, “Presidential Election in Afghanistan: Democracy in the Making,” Intellectual Discourse 13, no. 1, (2005): 31.106. U.S. Const. art. I, § 4, cl. 1.108. Washington, DC, has three electoral votes, while other US territories have none.109. Five presidents have lost the popular vote and won the Electoral College: John Quincy Adams, Rutherford B. Hayes, Benjamin Harrison, George W. Bush, and Donald Trump.110. William Riker, “Duverger’s Law Revisited,” in Electoral Laws and Their Political Consequences, eds. Bernard Grofman and Arend Ljiphardt (New York: Agathon Press, 1986), 19.111. The majority of list-proportional representation (list PR) systems in the world are closed, meaning that the order of candidates elected by that list is fixed by the party itself, and voters are not able to express a preference for a particular candidate. Many of the list PR systems used in continental Europe therefore use open lists, in which voters can indicate not just their favored party, but their favored candidate within that party. (Source: “Open, Closed and Free Lists,” ACE Project: The Electoral Knowledge Network, https://aceproject.org/main/english/es/esg03.htm)112. John G. Matsusaka, “Direct Democracy Works,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 19, no. 2 (Spring 2005): 185–206.116. R. Sam Garrett, Federal Role in US Campaigns and Elections: An Overview, CRS Report No. R45302 (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2018), https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R45302.pdf.121. “Campaign Finance: France,” Law Library, Research and Reports, Legal Topics, United States Library of Congress, accessed March 3, 2021, https://www.loc.gov/item/2018298980.122. Mostafa Farmani and Afshin Jafari, “A Comparative Approach to Study the Electoral Systems of Selected Countries,” International Journal of Humanities and Cultural Studies 2, no. 4 (March 2016): 1913–24.
9 Legislatures
2. Henry M. Robert III et al., Robert’s Rules of Order: Newly Revised, 12th ed. (New York: PublicAffairs, 2020); Kari Palonen, The Politics of Parliamentary Procedure: The Formation of the Westminster Procedure as a Parliamentary Ideal Type (Opladen, Germany: Barbara Budrich, 2014).5. Carles Boix and Milan W. Svolik, “The Foundations of Limited Authoritarian Government: Institutions, Commitment, and Power-Sharing in Dictatorships,” Journal of Politics 75, no. 2 (April 2013): 300–316, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1017...22381613000029; Jennifer Gandhi and Adam Przeworski, “Authoritarian Institutions and the Survival of Autocrats,” Comparative Political Studies 40, no. 11 (November 2007): 1279–1301, https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414007305817.6. Ora John Reuter and Graeme B. Robertson, “Legislatures, Cooptation, and Social Protest in Contemporary Authoritarian Regimes,” Journal of Politics 77, no. 1 (January 2015): 235–248, https://doi.org/10.1086/678390; Jennifer Gandhi, Political Institutions under Dictatorship (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008).7. Scott Williamson and Beatriz Magaloni, “Legislatures and Policy Making in Authoritarian Regimes,” Comparative Political Studies 53, no. 9 (August 2020): 1525–1543.13. William Ruger and Jason Sorens, The Citizen Legislature: How Reasonable Limits on State Legislative Salaries, Staff and Session Lengths Keep Liberty Alive, Policy Brief No. 11-04 (Phoenix, AZ: Goldwater Institute, 2011), https://goldwaterinstitute.org/wp-co...res%206-21.pdf.14. Andrew C. Eggers and Alexander B. Fouirnaies, “Representation and District Magnitude in Plurality Systems,” Electoral Studies 33 (March 2014): 267–277.17. Susan Welch, “The Impact of At-Large Elections on the Representation of Blacks and Hispanics,” Journal of Politics 52, no. 4 (November 1990): 1050–1076, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2131682.18. Susan Welch and Donley T. Studlar, “Multi-Member Districts and the Representation of Women: Evidence from Britain and the United States,” Journal of Politics 52, no. 2 (May 1990): 391–412, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2131899.19. Marco Portmann, David Stadelmann, and Reiner Eichenberger, “District Magnitude and Representation of the Majority’s Preferences: Evidence from Popular and Parliamentary Votes,” Public Choice 151, no. 3–4 (June 2011): 585–610, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-010-9760-0.20. “History of Women in the US Congress,” Levels of Office, Center for American Women and Politics, last updated June 15, 2021, https://cawp.rutgers.edu/history-women-us-congress; Katherine Schaeffer, “Racial, Ethnic Diversity Increases Yet Again with the 117th Congress,” Pew Research Center, January 28, 2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tan...17th-congress/.22. Adrian D. Pantoja and Gary M. Segura, “Does Ethnicity Matter? Descriptive Representation in Legislatures and Political Alienation among Latinos,” Social Science Quarterly 84, no. 2 (June 2003): 441–460; Beth Reingold and Jessica Harrell, “The Impact of Descriptive Representation on Women’s Political Engagement: Does Party Matter?,” Political Research Quarterly 63, no. 2 (June 2010): 280–294, https://www.jstor.org/stable/20721490.23. Edmund Burke, “To the Electors of Bristol,” The Works of the Right Honourable Edmund Burke (London: Henry G. Bohn, 1854), 1:446–448.28. Shaun Bowler, David M. Farrell, and Richard S. Katz, eds., Party Discipline and Parliamentary Government (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1999).34. Rens Vliegenthart and Stefaan Walgrave, “Content Matters: The Dynamics of Parliamentary Questioning in Belgium and Denmark,” Comparative Political Studies 44, no. 8 (August 2011): 1031–1059.38. Arend Lijphart and Robert W. Gibberd, “Thresholds and Payoffs in List Systems of Proportional Representation,” European Journal of Political Research 5, no. 3 (September 1977): 219–244.41. Maurice Duverger, Political Parties: Their Organization and Activity in the Modern State, trans. Barbara North and Robert North, 2nd ed. (1959; repr., London: Methuen, 1967).44. While the names of the parties have remained the same since the mid-1860s, it is important to note that the policy beliefs and positions of the parties have changed over time, so a deeper study of American party systems recognizes further realignments.45. Theodore Rosenof, Realignment: The Theory That Changed the Way We Think about American Politics (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003).48. “Brunei: Government,” globalEDGE, Broad College of Business, Michigan State University, 2021, https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries...nei/government; “Brunei,” The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, last updated October 6, 2021, under “Government,” https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbo...ei/#government.50. US Constitution, amend. 17.56. Nolan McCarty, Keith T. Poole, and Howard Rosenthal, Polarized America: The Dance of Ideology and Unequal Riches (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006).58. Sean M. Theriault, The Gingrich Senators (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).59. APSA Committee on Political Parties, “Summary of Conclusions and Proposals,” in “Toward a More Responsible Two-Party System: A Report of the Committee on Political Parties,” special issue, American Political Science Review 44, no. 3 pt. 2 (September 1950): 1–14, https://doi.org/10.2307/1950998.
10 Executives, Cabinets, and Bureaucracies
1. Quoted in Godfrey Hodgson, All Things to All Men: The False Promise of the Modern American Presidency (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1980), 25.4. Nils-Christian Bormann and Matt Golder, “Democratic Electoral Systems around the World, 1946–2011,” Electoral Studies 32, no. 2 (June 2013), 360–369.5. José Antonio Cheibub, Zachary Elkins, and Tom Ginsburg, “Beyond Presidentialism and Parliamentarianism,” British Journal of Political Science 44, no. 3 (July 2014): 515–544.14. Amina Dunn, “Only 24% of Trump Supporters View the Coronavirus Outbreak as a ‘Very Important’ Voting Issue,” Pew Research Center, October 21, 2020, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tan...-voting-issue/. Please note there is no inherent contradiction between 17 percent on Election Day stating the coronavirus was the most important issue and 55 percent of respondents stating before the election that it was a very important issue. For the CNN exit poll, respondents can only choose one issue as most important. For the Pew Research poll, respondents considered each issue independently and were asked to rate that issue’s importance.15. Quoted in Gregory H. Fox and Georg Nolte, “Intolerant Democracies,” Harvard International Law Journal 36, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 89.16. Arend Lijphart, ed., Parliamentary versus Presidential Government (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 11.20. William G. Howell and Terry M. Moe, Presidents, Populism, and the Crisis of Democracy (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000).24. Ibid., 6-7. Howell and Moe write: “Populists don’t just feed on socioeconomic discontent. They feed on ineffective government—and their great appeal is that they claim to replace it with a government that is effective through their own autocratic power. This generic formula was precisely what Trump followed in the 2016 election.” William G. Howell and Terry M. Moe, Presidents, Populism, and the Crisis of Democracy (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000).27. Fareed Zakaria, “The Rise of Illiberal Democracy,” Foreign Affairs 76, no. 6 (November/December 1997): 23–24.28. William G. Howell and Terry M. Moe, Presidents, Populism, and the Crisis of Democracy (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000), 40.30. William G. Howell and Terry M. Moe, Presidents, Populism, and the Crisis of Democracy (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2020). At the top of their list of system issues that remain is the ineffectiveness of government. See also Daron Acemoglu, “Trump Won’t Be the Last American Populist: The Conditions That Produced Him Need to be Understood to be Addressed,” Foreign Affairs, November 6, 2020, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/artic...rican-populist.32. Richard Neustadt, Presidential Power: The Politics of Leadership from FDR to Carter (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1980), 10.38. Juan Linz, “The Perils of Presidentialism,” Journal of Democracy 1, no. 1 (Winter 1990): 51.42. Jaap Woldendorp, Hans Keman, and Ian Budge, Party Government in 48 Democracies (1945–1998) (Dordrecht, NL: Springer, 2000).43. Josep M. Colomer, “The More Parties, the Greater Policy Stability,” European Political Science 11, no. 2 (June 2012): 231.44. David Mayhew, Divided We Govern, 2nd ed. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005).46. David Mayhew, Partisan Balance: Why Political Parties Don’t Kill the US Constitutional System (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011).48. See, for example, Morris P. Fiorina, Samuel J. Abrams, and Jeremy C. Pope, Culture War? The Myth of a Polarized America, 3rd ed. (New York: Longman, 2010).49. Lawrence C. Dodd and Scot Schraufnagel, “Reconsidering Party Polarization and Policy Productivity: A Curvilinear Perspective,” in Congress Reconsidered, Lawrence C. Dodd and Bruce I. Oppenheimer, eds., 9th ed. (Washington DC: CQ Press, 2009): 413.50. Marjorie Randon Hershey, Party Politics in America (New York: Routledge, 2021): 39.55. Paul J. Quirk, “Presidential Competence,” in The Presidency and the Political System, 12th ed., ed. Michael Nelson (Thousand Oaks, CA: CQ Press, 2021), 80. Quirk continues: “Many were wealthy businesspeople and campaign contributors. Most appointees had little or no experience relevant to their agencies.”56. Lyn Ragsdale, “Studying the Presidency: Why Presidents Need Political Scientists,” in The Presidency and the Political System, 12th ed., ed. Michael Nelson (Thousand Oaks, CA: CQ Press, 2021), 60.57. It is rare for cabinet appointments to fail Senate confirmation. In the last 100 years, less than a handful have failed.59. Jeffrey K. Tulis, “The Two Constitutional Presidencies,” in The Presidency and the Political System, 12th ed., ed. Michael Nelson (Thousand Oaks: CA, 2021), 15.60. Michael Foley, The Rise of the British Presidency (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1993).61. Keith Dowding, “The Prime Ministerialisation of the British Prime Minister,” Parliamentary Affairs 66, no. 3 (July 2013): 617–635.62. H. G. Creel, “The Beginnings of Bureaucracy in China: The Origin of Nsein,” The Journal of Asian Studies 23, no. 2 (February 1964): 155–156.64. Herbert Kaufman, “Emerging Conflicts in the Doctrines of Public Administration,” The American Political Science Review 50, no. 4 (December 1956): 1057–1073. Kaufman writes: “[Neutral competence is the] ability to do the work of government expertly, and to do it according to explicit, objective standards rather than to personal or party or other obligations and loyalties. The slogan of the neutral competence school became, ‘Take administration out of politics.’”65. Marina Nistotskaya, Stefan Dahlberg, Carl Dahlström, Aksel Sundström, Sofia Axelsson, Cem Mert Dalli, and Natalia Alvarado Pachon, The Quality of Government Expert Survey 2020 (Wave III): Report (Gothenberg, SE: University of Gothenburg: The QoG Working Paper Series, 2021:2). Data available at https://www.gu.se/en/quality-governm...-expert-survey.66. Lawrence C. Dodd and Richard L. Schott, Congress and the Administrative State (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1979), 2. The authors write: “The administrative state is, however, in many respects a prodigal child. Although born of congressional intent, it has taken on a life of its own and has matured to a point where its muscle and brawn can be turned against its creator.”67. Lyn Ragsdale, “Studying the Presidency: Why Presidents Need Political Scientists,” in The Presidency and the Political System, 12th ed., ed. Michael Nelson (Thousand Oaks, CA: CQ Press, 2021), 61. Ragsdale continues: “In many ways, presidents are satellites of the executive branch. They and their administrations do not share in the values of the various departments and agencies, they operate under different timetables, and they do not know or serve as advocates for clients of the bureaucracy, whether farmers, welfare mothers, or some other group.”69. 76 Fed. Reg. 66625 (Oct. 27, 2011), 27 C.F.R. 4.72. Jason W. Yackee and Susan Webb Yackee. “A Bias toward Business? Assessing Interest Group Influence on the Bureaucracy,” The Journal of Politics 68, no. 1 (February 2006): 128–139.73. Ibid.; Susan Webb Yackee, “The Politics of Rulemaking,” Annual Review of Political Science 22 (2019): 37–55.
11 Courts and Law
73. See Christopher Slobogin, “An Empirically Based Comparison of American and European Regulatory Approaches to Police Investigation,” Michigan Journal of International Law 22, issue 3 (2001), https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi...7&context=mjil for an example of countries with right to privacy protections. 80. “Executions of Juveniles Outside of the US,” Juveniles, Policy Issues, Death Penalty Information Center, accessed January 11, 2022, https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/policy-...ide-of-the-u-s; “Juveniles and the Death Penalty,” ACLU, accessed January 11, 2022, https://www.aclu.org/other/juveniles...-death-penalty; “TalkAboutIt: Capital punishment around the world,” ABC News Australia, last updated April 7, 2015, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-04-...-world/6371238.82. Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972). 83. Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U.S. 153 (1976); Proffitt v. Florida, 428 U.S. 242 (1976); Jurek v. Texas, 428 U.S. 262 (1976); Woodson v. North Carolina, 428 U.S. 280 (1976); Roberts v. Louisiana, 428 U.S. 325 (1976). 90. Roper, Superintendent, Potosi Correctional Center v. Simmons, 543 US 551 (2005); Daryl Renard Atkins, Petitioner v. Virginia, 536 US 304 (2002).92. Michael Tarm, “On federal death row, inmates talk about Biden, executions,” APNews, March 22, 2021, https://apnews.com/article/federal-d...b6ade6bb3375c0; “Capital Punishment,” History, About, Federal Bureau of Prisons, accessed January 11, 2022, https://www.bop.gov/about/history/fe...executions.jsp.95. Trop v. Dulles, 356 US 86 (1958) 96. “Reasons to Oppose the Death Penalty,” Virginians for Alternatives to the Death Penalty, accessed January 11, 2022, https://www.vadp.org/dp-info/reasons...death-penalty/, “The Facts: 13 Reasons to Oppose the Death Penalty,” Facts, Oregonians for Alternatives to the Death Penalty, accessed January 11, 2022, https://www.oadp.org/facts/13-reasons; “Death penalty: key facts about the situation in Europe and the rest of the world,” World, News, European Parliament, last updated July 28, 2020, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/...orld-key-facts. 104. U.S. Const. amend. V.105. U.S. Const. amend. XIV, § 1.106. Mullane v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co., 339 U.S. 306 (1950).107. Mathews v. Eldridge, 424 U.S. 319 (1976).113. U.S. Const. amend. V.114. Katherine A. Currier, Thomas E. Eimermann, and Marisa S. Campbell, “The Court System and the Role of Judges,” in The Study of Law: A Critical Thinking Approach, 5th ed. (New York: Wolters Kluwer, 2020). 118. U.S. Const. art. III, VI. 120. Congress passed 15,817 laws from 1954 to 2002. The Supreme Court ruled 103 of them, a total of two-thirds of 1 percent, unconstitutional. In that same period, state legislatures enacted 1,006,649 laws. The court ruled 452 of those, less than one-twentieth of 1 percent, unconstitutional. The federal government adopted 21,462 regulations from 1986 to 2006. The court held 121 of them, about one-half of 1 percent, unconstitutional. See Clark Neily and Dick M. Carpenter II, Government Unchecked: The False Problem of “Judicial Activism” and the Need for Judicial Engagement (Arlington, VA: Center for Judicial Engagement, September 2011), https://www.ij.org/images/pdf_folder...vnmtunchkd.pdf.
12 The Media
1. Ronald Hamowy, “Cato’s Letters, John Locke, and the Republican Paradigm,” History of Political Thought 11, no. 2 (Summer 1990): 273–294,-94. Accessed May 18, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26213860.3. Doris A. Graber, Mass Media and American Politics, 6th ed. (Washington, DC (Thousand Oaks, CA: CQ Press, 2002), 2.4. Thomas Carlyle, “The Hero as a Man of Letters: Johnson, Rousseau, Burns,” in On Heroes, and Hero- Worship, and the Heroic in History (London: James Fraser, Regent Street, 1841), 265 (italics in original).5. Legal suppression of material prior to its being published or broadcast on the grounds that it is libelous or harmful8. Member of Parliament, equivalent to a congressperson in the United States11. Timothy Snyder, On Tyranny: Twenty Lessons from the Twentieth Century (New York: Tim Duggan Books, 2017), 65.18. Manuel Vega-Gordillo and José L. Álvarez-Arce, “Economic Growth and Freedom: A Causality Study,” Cato Journal 23, no. 2 (Fall 2003): 199–-215; Abdullah Alam and Syed Zulfiqar Ali Shah, “The Role of Press Freedom in Economic Development: A Global Perspective,” Journal of Media Economics 26, no. 1 (2013): 4–20.19. Timothy Besley and Robin Burgess, “The Political Economy of Government Responsiveness: Theory and Evidence from India,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 117, no. 4 (November 2002): 1415–1451; Sebastian Freille, M. Emranul Haque, and Richard Kneller, “A Contribution to the Empirics of Press Freedom and Corruption,” European Journal of Political Economy 23, no. 4 (December 2007): 838–862; Shyamal K. Chowdhury, “The Effect of Democracy and Press Freedom on Corruption: An Empirical Test,” Economics Letters 85, no. 1 (October 2004): 93–101.20. Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What’s News: A Study of CBS Evening News, NBC Nightly News, Newsweek, and Time (New York: Vintage Books, 19801979), 39.22. Monika Bednarek and Helen Caple, The Discourse of News Values: How News Organizations Create Newsworthiness (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 3.23. Lisbeth Clausen, Global News Production (Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business School Press, 2003).24. Cristina Archetti, “Comparing International Coverage of 9/11: Towards an Interdisciplinary Explanation of the Constructionof News,” Journalism 11, no. 5 (October 2010): 567–-588.25. Vincent Campbell, Information Age Journalism: Journalism in an International Context (London: Arnold, 2004), 123.26. Maxwell E. McCombs and Donald L. Shaw, “The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media,” Public Opinion Quarterly 36, no. 2 (Summer 1972): 176, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2747787.27. David Tewksbury and Dietram A. Scheufele, “News Framing Theory and Research,” in Media Effects, Advances in Theory and Research, edited by Mary Beth Oliver, Arthur A. Raney, and Jennings Bryant, 4th ed. (New York: Routledge, 2020), 51.28. James Devitt, “Framing Gender on the Campaign Trail: Female Gubernatorial Candidates and the Press,” Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 79, no. 2 (June 2002): 445–463.29. Claes H. De Vreese, Jochen Peter, and Holli A. Semetko, “Framing Politics at the Launch of the Euro: A Cross-National Comparative Study of Frames in the News,” Political Communication 18, no. 2 (2001): 107–122, https://doi.org/10.1080/105846001750322934.32. Cyndia Susan Clegg, “Tudor Literary Censorship,” Oxford Handbooks Online, Oxford University Press, October 2014, https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935338.013.9; Md Nurus Safa et al., “Blog as a Medium of Freedom of Expression,” International Journal of Innovation and Scientific Research 3, no. 1 (June 2014), 1–-9, http://www.ijisr.issr-journals.org/issue.php?issue=5.33. Theodore J. Lowi et al., American Government:, Power and Purpose, 15th ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 2018).36. H. Iris Chyi, Trial and Error: US Newspapers’ Digital Struggle toward Inferiority, (Pamplona: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Navarra, 2013), 80, https://dadun.unav.edu/handle/10171/42076.47. “History of Commercial Radio.”61. Nickie Louise, “These 6 Corporations Control 90% of the Media Outlets in America. The Illusion of Choice and Objectivity,” Tech Startups, September 18, 2020, https://techstartups.com/2020/09/18/...ectivity-2020/. (Viacom and CBS completed a merger in December 2019.)62. Eli M. Noam, Media Ownership and Concentration in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 17.67. Mark Cooper, Media Ownership and Democracy in the Digital Information Age: Promoting Diversity with First Amendment Principles and Market Structure Analysis (Stanford, CA: Center for Internet & Society, Stanford Law School), 18, http://cyberlaw.stanford.edu/attachm...mediabooke.pdf.71. Elda Brogi et al., Monitoring Media Pluralism in the Digital Era: Application of the Media Pluralism Monitor in the European Union, Albania and Turkey in the Years 2018–2019 (Fiesole, Italy: European University Institute, 2020), https://cmpf.eui.eu/mpm2020-results/.81. Shanto Iyengar, Media Politics: A Citizen’s Guide, 3rd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 2016), 2.83. Thomas E. Patterson, “News Coverage of the 2016 Presidential Primaries: Horse Race Reporting Has Consequences,” Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy, Harvard Kennedy School, July 11, 2016, https://shorensteincenter.org/news-c...ial-primaries/.86. Denise-Marie Ordway, “The Consequences of ‘Horse Race’ Reporting: What the Research Says,” The Journalist’s Resource, Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy, Harvard Kennedy School, September 10, 2019, https://journalistsresource.org/poli...ting-election/.87. Susan Banducci and Chris Hanretty, “Comparative Determinants of Horse-Race Coverage,” European Political Science Review 6, no. 4 (November 2014): 621–640.89. Jesper Strömbäck and Daniela V. Dimitrova, “Political and Media Systems Matter: A Comparison of Election News Coverage in Sweden and the United States,” International Journal of Press/Politics 11, no. 4 (Fall 2006): 131–147.91. Agnieszka Dobrzynska, André Blais, and Richard Nadeau, “Do the Media Have a Direct Impact on the Vote? The Case of the 1997 Canadian Election,” International Journal of Public Opinion Research 15, no. 1 (March 2003): 27–43.95. Stephen Ansolabehere, Roy Behr, and Shanto Iyengar, “Mass Media and Elections: An Overview,” American Politics Quarterly 19, no. 1 (January 1991): 109.96. Jacques Gerstlé and Alessandro Nai, “Negativity, Emotionality and Populist Rhetoric in Election Campaigns Worldwide, and Their Effects on Media Attention and Electoral Success,” European Journal of Communication 34, no. 4 (August 2019): 431, https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323119861875.97. Neil T. Gavin, “Media Definitely Do Matter: Brexit, Immigration, Climate Change and Beyond,” British Journal of Politics and International Relations 20, no. 4 (November 2018): 827–845, https://doi.org/10.1177/1369148118799260.103. Fred Wertheimer, “TV Ad Wars: How to Cut Advertising Costs in Political Campaigns,” in Points of View: Readings in American Government and Politics, edited by Robert E. DiClerico and Allan S. Hammock, 11th ed. (Boston: McGraw- Hill, 2009), 90.104. Stephen Ansolabehere and Shanto Iyengar, Going Negative: How Political Advertisements Shrink and Polarize the Electorate (New York: Free Press, 1997), 112.105. Kim Fridkin Kahn and Patrick J. Kenney, “Do Negative Campaigns Mobilize or Suppress Turnout? Clarifying the Relationship between Negativity and Participation,” American Political Science Review 93, no. 4 (December 1999): 877–889, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2586118.106. Michael D. Martinez and Tad Delegal, “The Irrelevance of Negative Campaigns to Political Trust: Experimental and Survey Results,” Political Communication 7, no.1 (1990): 25–40.107. Richard R. Lau, Lee Sigelman, and Ivy Brown Rovner, “The Effects of Negative Political Campaigns: A Meta-Analytic Reassessment,” Journal of Politics 69, no. 4 (November 2007): 1176–1209, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00618.x; Robert A. Jackson, Jeffery J. Mondak, and Robert Huckfeldt, “Examining the Possible Corrosive Impact of Negative Advertising on Citizens’ Attitudes toward Politics,” Political Research Quarterly 62, no. 1 (March 2009): 55–69, https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912908317031; Richard R. Lau and Ivy Brown Rovner, “Negative Campaigning,” Annual Review of Political Science 12 (2009): 285–306, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.poli....071905.101448.108. Gina M. Garramone, “Voter Responses to Negative Political Ads,” Journalism Quarterly 61, no. 2 (June 1984): 250–259; Neal J. Roese and Gerald N. Sande, “Backlash Effects in Attack Politics,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 23, no. 8 (1993): 632–653.109. Gene R. Laczniak and Clarke L. Caywood, “The Case for and against Televised Political Advertising: Implications for Research and Public Policy,” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 6 (1987): 16–32, https://www.jstor.org/stable/30000152.111. Another way to understand this is through Metcalfe’s law, which states that the value of a network is proportional to the square of the number of connected users of the system.116. Brian D. Loader et al., “Campus Politics, Student Societies and Social Media,” Sociological Review 63, no. 4 (November 2015): 837.117. Clay Shirky, Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing without Organizations (New York: Penguin, 2008).118. Clay Shirky, “The Political Power of Social Media: Technology, the Public Sphere, and Political Change,” Foreign Affairs 90, no.1 (January/February 2011): 30.120. See Wael Ghonim, Revolution 2.0: The Power of the People Is Greater Than the People in Power (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2012).121. Emily Parker, Now I Know Who My Comrades Are: Voices from the Internet Underground, (New York: Sarah Crichton Books, 2014), 7.123. Kiran Garimella et al., “Political Discourse on Social Media: Echo Chambers, Gatekeepers, and the Price of Bipartisanship,” in WWW ’18: Proceedings of the 2018 World Wide Web Conference (Geneva: International World Wide Web Conference Committee, 2018), 913–922, https://doi.org/10.1145/3178876.3186139.124. Cass R. Sunstein, Republic.com 2.0 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), 13.125. Pablo Barberá, “Social Media, Echo Chambers, and Political Polarization,” in Social Media and Democracy: The State of the Field and Prospects for Reform, edited by Nathaniel Persily and Joshua A. Tucker (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020), 34–55.126. Anatoliy Gruzd and Jeffrey Roy, “Investigating Political Polarization on Twitter: A Canadian Perspective,” Policy & Internet 6, no. 1 (March 2014): 28–45.127. Alexander Hanna et al., “Partisan Alignments and Political Polarization Online: A Computational Approach to Understanding the French and US Presidential Elections,” in PLEAD ’13: Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Politics, Elections and Data (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 2013), 15–22, https://doi.org/10.1145/2508436.2508438.130. Peter Van Aelst et al., “Political Communication in a High-Choice Media Environment: A Challenge for Democracy?,” Annals of the International Communication Association 41, no. 1 (2017): 12, https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2017.1288551.131. David Schkade, Cass R. Sunstein, and Reid Hastie, “What Happened on Deliberation Day?,” California Law Review 95, no. 3 (June 2007): 915–940, https://www.jstor.org/stable/20439113.137. Yariv Tsfati and Gal Ariely, “Individual and Contextual Correlates of Trust in Media across 44 Countries,” Communication Research 41, no. 6 (August 2014): 760–782, https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650213485972.138. Tien-Tsung Lee, “Why They Don’t Trust the Media: An Examination of Factors Predicting Trust,” American Behavioral Scientist 54, no. 1 (September 2010): 8–21, https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764210376308.140. Anne E. Wilson, Victoria A. Parker, and Matthew Feinberg, “Polarization in the Contemporary Political and Media Landscape,” Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences 34 (August 2020): 226, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.07.005.144. See Meredith Conroy.148. Typically, guests who discuss issues on television or the radio who do not engage in journalistic practices that result in unbiased or fact-based reporting150. Best practices, journalistic expertise, type of work, citations and references, methods, local sourcing, diverse voices, and actionable feedback152. Johannes von Dohnanyi and Christian Möller, The Impact of Media Concentration on Professional Journalism (Vienna: Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, 2003), https://www.osce.org/fom/13870.
13 Governing Regimes
1. Max Weber, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Routledge, 2009).2. Weber, Essays in Sociology.3. Individual government officials may have an incentive to break these rules. Former president Richard Nixon, for electoral reasons, among others, broke the law and so acted without authority. His illegal actions were discovered, and he resigned before being impeached and removed from office by Congress. See Frank O. Bowmann III, High Crimes and Misdemeanors: A History of Impeachment for the Age of Trump, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2019. Donald Trump also faced allegations that he was driven by considerations of electoral advantage to break federal laws, and he was impeached (but not removed from office) twice on that basis. For a recent survey of the range of allegations of unlawful behavior during Trump’s presidency designed to enhance his reelection prospects, see a 2021 report by Henry Kerner of the Office of the Special Counsel, who asserts there was a “concerted willful effort to violate the law by the most senior officers in the White House” during Trump’s presidency. US Office of Special Counsel, Investigation of Political Activities by Senior Trump Administration Officials during the 2020 Presidential Election, November 9, 2021, https://osc.gov/Documents/Hatch%20Ac...20Election.pdf. The Trump administration denied any legal wrongdoing in these matters. Andrea Shalal, “Federal Watchdog Probing Trump Campaign’s Use of White House – Lawmaker,” Reuters, November 25, 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/usa-...-idINKBN27M0EF.4. Mark P. Keightley, “Why Subsidize Homeownership? A Review of Rationales,” Congressional Research Service, September 6, 2019, https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/IF11305.pdf; Laurie S. Goodman and Christopher Meyer, “Homeownership and the American Dream,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 32, no. 1 (2018): 31–58; Kim R. Manturuk, Mark Lindblad, and Roberto G. Quercia, A Place Called Home: The Social Dimensions of Homeownership (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), xii–xvii.7. Christina Bobb of the far right One America Network, for example, asserts that “we can all now see that Joe Biden is not a legitimate president.” “OAN Host: Joe Biden Is Not a Legitimate President and We Do Not Have a Legitimate Executive Branch in Power Right Now,” Media Matters for America, April 26, 2021, https://www.mediamatters.org/one-ame...egitimate-exec.8. Bobb, for example, goes on to say that Biden and his supporters “devised an evil [and illegal] scheme to steal our election.” Media Matters, “Joe Biden Is Not a Legitimate President.”14. In 2020, France also declared a state of emergency to deal with the COVID-19 pandemic.16. Basic Law Art. 139(c); Minerva Center, Law and Emergencies.17. Law and Administration Ordinance Art. 9(a), 1 Laws of the State of Israel [Laws St. Isr.] 7 (1948) (enacted May 19, 1948); Minerva Center, Law and Emergencies.18. Minerva Center, Law and Emergencies.20. “Declaring a State of Emergency,” The Knesset, https://m.knesset.gov.il/en/about/le...emergency.aspx; Ahaz Ben Ari and Meir Elran, “States of Emergency: Legal Aspects and Implications for the Corona Crisis in Israel,” INSS Insight, no. 1292, April 5, 2020, https://www.inss.org.il/publication/...rus-and-law-2/; “Knesset Extends State of Emergency in Israel by Another Year,” Knesset News, August 3, 2021, https://main.knesset.gov.il/EN/News/...ress3821t.aspx; “Defense (Emergency) Regulations,” Israeli Information Center.21. Myriam Feinberg, “States of Emergency in France and Israel—Terrorism, ‘Permanent Emergencies,’ and Democracy,” Z Politikwiss 28 (2018): 495–506.23. “Constitutional Dictator,” Martial Law Museum.26. “Constitutional Dictator,” Martial Law Museum (emphasis in original).29. Kim Lane Scheppele, “Law in a Time of Emergency: States of Exception and the Temptations of 9/11,” Journal of Constitutional Law 6, no. 5 (2004): 1–75, 3.30. Joseph Ellis has recently argued that not much more than a general notion that America should be independent of the British Empire united the American revolutionaries, who disagreed over why independence was necessary and what an independent America should look like. Joseph Ellis, The Cause: The American Revolution ad Its Discontents, 1773–1783 (New York: Liveright, 2021).31. Weber, Essays in Sociology.33. Vanessa Martin, Creating the Islamic State: Khomeini and the Making of a New Iran (London: I. B. Tauris, 2003).34. Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky, Manufactured Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (New York: Pantheon, 2002). Herman and Chomsky focus on the work of media elites to shape the population’s sentiments, but the term can be broadened to refer to the state’s attempt to do the same.36. Paval Usau, “Ideology of Belarusian State Propaganda Mechanisms,” in Belarusian Society, 2007: Hopes, Illusions, Perspectives, ed. Marta Pejda (Madison, WI: East European Democratic Centre of the University of Wisconsin, 2007), 40–45; “Freedom on the Net 2021: Belarus,” Freedom House, https://freedomhouse.org/country/bel...eedom-net/2021.39. Lothar Brock, Hans-Hendrik Holm, Georg Sorenon, and Michael Stohl, Fragile States (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2012).42. Kenneth R. Rutherford, Humanitarianism under Fire: The US and U.N. Intervention in Somalia (Sterling, VA: Kumarian Press, 2008).44. This distinction has been drawn by scholars for several decades. Edwin A. Winckler, “Institutionalization and Participation on Taiwan: From Hard to Soft Authoritarianism?” The China Quarterly 99 (1984): 481–499.50. Anour Boukhars, Politics in Morocco: Executive Monarchy and Enlightened Authoritarianism (Abingdon, England: Routledge, 2011).53. Sung Chul Yang, The North and South Korean Political Systems: A Comparative Analysis (Abingdon-on-Thames, England: Taylor & Francis, 2019), 270.56. Heonik K. Kwon and Byung-Ho Chung, North Korea: Beyond Charismatic Politics (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2012).57. Eleanor Albert, “North Korea’s Power Structure,” Council on Foreign Relations, June 17, 2020, https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/nor...ower-structure; Kongdan Oh and Ralph Hassig, North Korea in a Nutshell: A Contemporary Overview (Lanhan, MD; Rowman and Littlefield, 2021).58. William L. Cleveland, A History of the Modern Middle East (Abingdon-on-Thames, England: Taylor & Francis, 2018), https://www.google.com/books/edition...sec=frontcover; “Pilgrimage to Karbala,” PBS, March 26, 2007, https://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/u...den-imam/1731/; Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, “Twelver Shi‘ah,” https://www.britannica.com/topic/Twelver-Shia.60. Martin, Creating the Islamic State; Abbas Milani calls the Iranian regime “paradoxical” due to its combination of institutions meant to ensure strict religious rule and more democratic branches of government. Abbas Milani, “The Authoritarian Resurgence: Iran’s Paradoxical Regime,” Journal of Democracy 26, no. 2 (2015): 52–60.61. Gunes Murat Tezcur, “Democratic Struggles and Authoritarian Responses in Iran in Contemporary Perspective” in Middle Eastern Authoritarianisms: Governance, Contestation, and Regime Resilience in Syria and Iran, eds. Steven Heydermann and Reinold Leenders (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2013).62. Wolfgang Renzsch, “German Federalism in Historical Perspective: Federalism as a Substitute for a National State,” Publius: The Journal of Federalism 19, no. 4 (1989): 17–33.63. Arthur B. Gunlicks, Comparing Liberal Democracies: The United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the European Union (Bloomington, IN; iUniverse, 2011).64. S. E. Finer, The History of Government from the Earliest Times, 3 vols. (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1999).67. Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Knesset.”72. Thomas West, The Political Theory of the American Founding: Natural Rights, Public Policy, and the Moral Conditions of Freedom (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2017).75. Mauro Arturo Rivera León, “Understanding Constitutional Amendments in Mexico: Perpetuum Mobile Constitution,” Mexican Law Review 9, no. 2 (2017): 3–27, DOI:10.22201/iij.24485306e.2017.18.10774.82. Prabhash K Dutta, “‘Love Jihad’ Undefined, Yet States Rushing with Anti-Conversion Laws,” India Today, November 18, 2020, https://www.indiatoday.in/news-analy...872-2020-11-18; Ghazala Jamil, “India’s ‘Love Jihad’ Anti-Conversion Laws Aim to Further Oppress Minorities, and It’s Working,” The Conversation, September 3, 2021, https://theconversation.com/indias-l...working-166746.83. Dutta, “‘Love Jihad’ Undefined.”87. “Pakistan’s Blasphemy Laws,” BBC.
14 International Relations
3. Guorui Fan and Jiaxin Zou, “Refreshing China’s Labor Education in the New Era: Policy Review on Education through Physical Labor,” ECNU Review of Education 3, no. 1 (2020): 169–78. doi:10.1177/2096531120903878.10. Salman Ahmed and Alexander Bick, Trump’s National Security Strategy: A New Brand of Mercantilism? (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2017), https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep13065.13. Adeed Dawisha, “Nation and Nationalism: Historical Antecedents to Contemporary Debates,” International Studies Review 4, no. 1 (2002): 3–22.15. Thomas J. Volgy, Elizabeth Fausett, Keith A. Grant, and Stuart Rodgers, “Identifying Formal Intergovernmental Organizations,” Journal of Peace Research 45, no. 6 (2008): 837–50.16. Warren Coats, “The Future of the International Monetary Fund,” Economic and Political Weekly 43, no. 35 (2008): 72–73.23. Andrew Rudalevige, “If the Iran Deal Had Been a Senate-Confirmed Treaty, Would Trump Have Been Forced to Stay In? Nope,” Washington Post, May 9, 2018, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/...-stay-in-nope/; “Iran Nuclear Deal: What It All Means,” BBC News, November 23, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-33521655; Kali Robinson, “What Is the Iran Nuclear Deal?” Council on Foreign Relations, Updated August 18, 2021, https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/wha...n-nuclear-deal.25. Timothy J. McKeown, “The Cuban Missile Crisis and Politics as Usual,” The Journal of Politics 62, no. 1 (2000): 70–87.26. U.S. Const., art. 1, § 8, cl. 11.29. Arms Control Association, “Nuclear Weapons.”31. McKeown, “Cuban Missile Crisis”; David R. Gibson, “Avoiding Catastrophe: The Interactional Production of Possibility during the Cuban Missile Crisis,” American Journal of Sociology 117, no. 2 (2011): 361–419, https://doi.org/10.1086/661761.33. A. Walter Dorn and Robert Pauk, “Unsung Mediator: U Thant and the Cuban Missile Crisis,” Diplomatic History 33, no. 2 (2009): 261–92.34. Michael C. Williams, “Why Ideas Matter in International Relations: Hans Morgenthau, Classical Realism, and the Moral Construction of Power Politics,” International Organization 58, no. 4 (2004): 633–65.35. Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink, “International Norm Dynamics and Political Change,” International Organization 52, no. 4 (1998): 887–917.36. Michael Howard. War and the Liberal Conscience (New York: Columbia University Press), 2008.37. David A. Baldwin, ed., Neorealism and Neoliberalism: The Contemporary Debate (New York: Columbia University Press), 1993.38. Robert Jervis, “Realism, Neoliberalism, and Cooperation: Understanding the Debate,” International Security 24, no. 1 (1999): 42–63.39. Michael W. Doyle, “Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs, Part 2,” Philosophy and Public Affairs 12, no. 4 (1983): 323–53.40. Jervis, “Realism, Neoliberalism, and Cooperation.”41. Brian Frederking, “Constructing Post-Cold War Collective Security,” The American Political Science Review 97, no. 3 (2003): 363–78.42. Waheeda Rana, “Theory of Complex Interdependence: A Comparative Analysis of Realist and Neoliberal Thoughts,” International Journal of Business and Social Science 6, no. 2 (2015): 8.46. Alexander Wendt, “Anarchy Is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics” International Organization 46, no. 2 (Spring 1992): 391–425; Maja Zehfuss, Constructivism in International Relations: The Politics of Reality (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002).47. Robin Wright, “Russia and China Unveil a Pact Against America and the West,” The New Yorker, February 7, 2022, https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily...a-and-the-west; Brandon K. Yoder, “Theoretical Rigor and the Study of Contemporary Cases: Explaining Post-Cold War China-Russia Relations,” International Politics 57 (2020): 741–59, https://doi.org/10.1057/s41311-019-00173-z; Elizabeth Wishnick, “In Search of the ‘Other’ in Asia: Russia–China Relations Revisited,” The Pacific Review 30, no. 1 (2017): 114–32, DOI: 10.1080/09512748.2016.1201129.48. Wright, “Russia and China.”49. “United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,” United Nations, December 10, 1982, https://www.un.org/depts/los/convent...convention.htm; International Law Commission, “Articles Concerning the Law of the Sea with Commentaries,” Yearbook of the International Law Commission Vol. II, 1956, https://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instr...1_8_2_1956.pdf; Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, “Law of the Sea,” https://www.britannica.com/topic/Law-of-the-Sea.50. Vendulka Kubálková and Albert Cruickshank, Marxism-Leninism and Theory of International Relations (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980).53. Diana Thornburn, “Feminism Meets International Relations,” SAIS Review 20, no. 2 (Summer-Fall 2000): 1-10.
15 International Law and International Organizations
3. Garrett Hardin, “The Tragedy of the Commons,” Science 162, no. 3859 (December 1968): 1243–1248, DOI: 10.1126/science.162.3859.1243; see also Chapter 2: The Fundamentals of Group Political Activity.5. “Law of the Sea,” Audiovisual Library of International Law, United Nations, accessed January 25, 2022, https://legal.un.org/avl/ha/lawofthesea.html; John Norton Moore, “Navigational Freedom: The Most Critical Common Heritage,” International Law Studies 93 (2017): 251–260.43. Rodrigo Tavares, Regional Security: The Capacity of International Organizations, New York: Routledge, 2010.44. “United Nations Shares Responsibility for Peace with Regional Organizations, Says Secretary-General, Opening All-Day Security Council Debate,” UN Security Council, August 18, 2015, accessed January 25, 2022, https://www.un.org/press/en/2015/sc12011.doc.htm.72. In Song Kim and Helen V. Milner, “Multinational Corporations and Their Influence through Lobbying on Foreign Policy,” in Global Goliaths: Multinational Corporations in the 21st Century, eds. C. Fritz Foley, James R. Hines, Jr., and David Wessel (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2021), 497–536.76. Cheung, “What Countries.”78. Song Kim and Helen V. Milner, “Multinational Corporations and Their Influence through Lobbying on Foreign Policy,” forthcoming in Multinational Corporations in a Changing Global Economy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution), https://scholar.princeton.edu/sites/...on_2_march.pdf.82. German Kim, “Irredentism in Disputed Territories and Its Influence on the Border Conflicts and Wars,” The Journal of Territorial and Maritime Studies 3, no. 1 (2016): 87–101. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26664127.
16 International Political Economy
3. Joseph E. Uscinski, “When Does the Public’s Issue Agenda Affect the Media’s Issue Agenda (and Vice-Versa)? Developing a Framework for Media-Public Influence,” Social Science Quarterly 90, no. 4 (December 2009): 796–815, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00663.x.5. Antoine Dechezleprêtre and Misato Sato, “The Impacts of Environmental Regulations on Competitiveness,” Review of Environmental Economics and Policy 11, no. 2 (July 1, 2017): 183–206, https://doi.org/10.1093/reep/rex013; Timothy J. Bartik, “Social Costs of Jobs Lost Due to Environmental Regulations,” Review of Environmental Economics and Policy 9, no. 2: 179–197 (Summer 2015), https://doi.org/10.17848/wp13-193; Eban Goodstein, Jobs and the Environment: The Myth of a National Trade-Off (Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute, 1994), https://files.epi.org/page/-/old/stu...study_1994.pdf; Richard D. Morgenstern, William A. Pizer, and Jhih-Shyang Shih, “Jobs versus the Environment: An Industry-Level Perspective,” Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 43, no. 3 (May 2002): 412–36, https://doi.org/10.1006/jeem.2001.1191.6. Emilia Barreto Carvalho, “Do Environmental Policies Enhance Environmental Quality?: An Examination of Policy Instruments and Outcomes,” in Environmental Philosophy, Politics, and Policy, ed. John A. Duerk (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2021), 205–20.7. Branden B. Johnson and Adam M. Finkel, “Public Perceptions of Regulatory Costs, Their Uncertainty and Interindividual Distribution,” Risk Analysis 36, no. 6 (June 2016): 1148–70, https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.12532.8. Fiona McGillivray, Privileging Industry: The Comparative Politics of Trade and Industrial Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004).9. Similar definitions of IPE are present in Thomas H. Oatley, International Political Economy, 6th ed. (New York & London: Routledge, 2019) and McGillivray, Privileging Industry.10. McGillivray, Privileging Industry; Oatley, International Political Economy.11. David R. Mayhew, Congress: The Electoral Connection, 2nd ed. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004).12. Brawley defines this zero-sum game as a situation in which “if one country got more gold, that left less for all the others.” Mark R. Brawley, Turning Points: Decisions Shaping the Evolution of the International Political Economy (Peterborough, Ontario & Orchard Park, NY: Broadview Press, 1998), 197.13. Brawley, Turning Points, 177.14. A mercenary is a soldier hired to fight in an army.15. Brawley, Turning Points, 197.16. David P. Levine, Wealth and Freedom: An Introduction to Political Economy (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 37. The dangers Levine mentions relate to externalities, such as poverty, inequality, and environmental crisis, subjects discussed in Section 16.6: Considering Poverty, Inequality, and the Environmental Crisis.17. Levine, Wealth and Freedom, 38.18. Brawley, Turning Points, Chapter 10.19. Brawley, Turning Points.20. Sidney E. Rolfe and James Burtle, The Great Wheel: The World Monetary System, A Reinterpretation (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975).21. Rolfe and Burtle, The Great Wheel.22. Rolfe and Burtle, The Great Wheel.23. Rolfe and Burtle, The Great Wheel.26. Stone, “The Scope of IMF Conditionality.”27. Joseph E. Stiglitz, Globalization and Its Discontents (New York: W. W. Norton, 2002).28. Stone, “The Scope of IMF Conditionality.”31. The World Bank, “Explore History.”32. N. Birdsall, “Population Growth and Poverty in the Developing World,” Population Bulletin 35, no. 5 (December 1980): 1–48.33. The World Bank, “Explore History.”34. William Easterly, “What Did Structural Adjustment Adjust?” Journal of Development Economics 76, no. 1 (February 2005): 1–22, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2003.11.005; Jane Harrigan and Paul Mosley, “Evaluating the Impact of World Bank Structural Adjustment Lending: 1980–87,” Journal of Development Studies 27, no. 3 (April 1991): 63–94, https://doi.org/10.1080/00220389108422204; M. Rodwan Abouharb and David L. Cingranelli, “The Human Rights Effects of World Bank Structural Adjustment, 1981–2000,” International Studies Quarterly 50, no. 2 (June 2006): 233–62, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2006.00401.x.35. The World Bank, “Explore History.”37. World Trade Organization, “The GATT Years.”38. World Trade Organization, “The GATT Years.”40. World Trade Organization, “The GATT Years.”41. Brawley, Turning Points.42. Seymour Martin Lipset, “Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy,” American Political Science Review 53, no. 1 (March 1959): 69–105, https://doi.org/10.2307/1951731.45. Adam Przeworski, ed., Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950-1990, Cambridge Studies in the Theory of Democracy (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000).46. Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, James A. Robinson, and Pierre Yared. “Reevaluating the Modernization Hypothesis,” Journal of Monetary Economics 56, no. 8 (November 2009): 1043–58, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmoneco.2009.10.002.47. Beth A. Simmons, Frank Dobbin, and Geoffrey Garrett, eds., The Global Diffusion of Markets and Democracy (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008); Beth A. Simmons and Zachary Elkins, “The Globalization of Liberalization: Policy Diffusion in the International Political Economy,” American Political Science Review 98, no. 1 (February 2004): 171–89, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055404001078.49. David R. Cameron, “The Expansion of the Public Economy: A Comparative Analysis,” American Political Science Review 72, no. 4 (December 1978): 1243–61, https://doi.org/10.2307/1954537; Peter J. Katzenstein, “Regionalism in Comparative Perspective,” Cooperation and Conflict 31, no. 2 (June 1996): 123–59, https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836796031002001; Geoffrey Garrett, “Global Markets and National Politics: Collision Course or Virtuous Circle?” International Organization 52, no. 4 (1998): 787–824, https://doi.org/10.1162/002081898550752.50. McGillivray, Privileging Industry.51. Simmons, Dobbin, and Garrett, The Global Diffusion of Markets and Democracy; Marcelo Soto, Capital Flows and Growth in Developing Countries: Recent Empirical Evidence, Working Paper (OECD Development Center, July 2000); Simmons and Elkins, “The Globalization of Liberalization.”52. McGillivray, Privileging Industry.53. Torben Iversen and Thomas R. Cusack, “The Causes of Welfare State Expansion: Deindustrialization or Globalization?” World Politics 52, no. 3 (April 2000): 313–49, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887100016567.55. Martin Ardanaz, M. Victoria Murillo, and Pablo M. Pinto, “Sensitivity to Issue Framing on Trade Policy Preferences: Evidence from a Survey Experiment,” International Organization 67, no. 2 (April 2013): 411–37, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818313000076.58. Reinhart and Rogoff, “From Financial Crash to Debt Crisis.”59. Stone, “The Scope of IMF Conditionality”; Randall W. Stone, Controlling Institutions: International Organizations and the Global Economy (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011).62. The proletariat is the industrial working class. Marx is also discussed in other chapters, notably in Chapter 3.63. Communism is an economic system in which the means of production would be owned and operated for the benefit of every individual in a society.64. Jeffrey D. Sachs, “Foreword,” in The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time, ed. Bono Vox (New York: Penguin Press, 2005), XVII.65. Sachs, “Foreword,” 347.66. Sachs, “Foreword,” 365–67.68. World Bank, ed., Poverty and Shared Prosperity 2020: Reversals of Fortune (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2020).70. World Bank, ed., Human Capital Index 2020 Update: Human Capital in the Time of Covid-19 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2021).73. Giacomo D’Alisa, Federico Demaria, and Giorgos Kallis, eds. Degrowth: A Vocabulary for a New Era (New York: Routledge, 2014), https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203796146; Armin Grunwald, “Diverging Pathways to Overcoming the Environmental Crisis: A Critique of Eco-Modernism from a Technology Assessment Perspective,” Journal of Cleaner Production 197 (October 2018): 1854–62, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.07.212; Stephen James Purdey, Economic Growth, the Environment and International Relations: The Growth Paradigm, Routledge Advances in International Political Economy 17 (London & New York: Routledge, 2010).74. Antonio Guterrez, “Secretary-General’s Remarks on Climate Change [as Delivered],” United Nations, September 10, 2018, https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/...ange-delivered; Michael E. Porter, “America’s Green Strategy,” Scientific American 264, no. 4 (April 1991): 168; Michael E. Porter and Claas van der Linde, “Toward a New Conception of the Environment-Competitiveness Relationship,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 9, no. 4 (Fall 1995): 97–118, https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.9.4.97; David Vogel, “Trading Up and Governing Across: Transnational Governance and Environmental Protection,” Journal of European Public Policy 4, no. 4 (December 1, 1997): 556–71, https://doi.org/10.1080/135017697344064; David Vogel, Trading Up: Consumer and Environmental Regulation in a Global Economy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997).75. Peter J. Jacques and Claire Connolly Knox, “Hurricanes and Hegemony: A Qualitative Analysis of Micro-Level Climate Change Denial Discourses,” Environmental Politics 25, no. 5 (2016): 831–52, https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2016.1189233; Stephan Lewandowsky, Naomi Oreskes, James S. Risbey, Ben R. Newell, and Michael Smithson, “Seepage: Climate Change Denial and Its Effect on the Scientific Community,” Global Environmental Change 33 (July 2015): 1–13, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.02.013; Brigitte Smith, “Ethics of Du Pont’s CFC Strategy 1975–1995,” Journal of Business Ethics 17, no. 5 (April 1, 1998): 557–68.77. Carvalho, “Environmental Policies.”81. Emilia Barreto Carvalho, “Do Environmental Policies Enhance Environmental Quality?: An Examination of Policy Instruments and Outcomes,” in Environmental Philosophy, Politics, and Policy, ed. John A. Duerk (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2021), 205-20.
