3.3: Culture and Identity

LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Define the terms culture, race and ethnicity.
• Describe the four components of culture.
• Discuss cultural influences on communication (i.e., individualism and collectivism, low- and high-context cultures and low- and high-power distance cultures).
• Describe the process of identity formation and different types of identities (i.e., personal, social and cultural).
• Discuss identity management and the relational stages.

CULTURE AND IDENTITY

We live in a diverse, global world. New technologies have increased our ability to communicate with others in both near and far away places. These technologies have increased our exposure to a variety of cultures and practices as well as our ability to share our own experience. This module will examine the concept of culture, cultural influences on interpersonal communication and the negotiation of culture and identity.

Defining culture

The term culture can mean many things to different people. This term plays an important role in our social lives. It helps us to shape our interpersonal relationships, determine the ways we make sense of the world and our place in it and influences our actions and experiences in society.

For our purposes, we will define culture as a system of learned and shared symbols, language, values and norms. Culture is not defined by location, ethnicity or economic status. It belongs to people and describes the way a group lives based on unique factors and historical context.

Race and ethnicity

Culture is learned not inherited. It is determined by our upbringing (who and where we were raised) as well as the symbols, language, values and norms we were exposed to. This means that culture is not necessarily tied to our race and ethnicity. To better understand this distinction, we will examine the ideas of race and ethnicity in this section.

Race

Race is the way we categorize people based on physical features (such as skin color) that is shared (to some degree) by a specific group of people. In the United States, common racial categories are Black, White, Asian, Latino and Native American. What do these categories mean? How are they used?

"US Census 2010 Form Extract of Race Section" by US Census Bureau, WikiMedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:US_Census_2010_form_race.jpg). Public Domain CC0.

The subject of race is controversial. A quick review of history shows that race has traditionally been used to oppress and enslave people. While these explicit forms of oppression are not as prevalent today, there are still may ways racial categories are used against groups of people. These forms of oppression are more implied and are deeply embedded in our social, political and economic systems.

Racial identification is flawed. Think about the common racial categories used in the United States, what do these terms actually mean? Can a person be a color? Are “white” people actually white? Are “black” people actually black? What about a child born to parents who are categorized as different races, what race is the child?

Many theorists have studied the relationship between race, discourse and identity. In 2006, cultural theorist Stuart Hall described race as a “floating signifier.” Hall argued that race is discursive construct that operates in society as a form of representation. In 2015, sociologists Michael Omi and Howard Winant described race as a socially constructed identity used to justify ethnocentrism.

Ethnocentrism is a term used to describe a systematic preference for the characteristics of our own culture. It may also lead us to be less trusting of others who do not share our ethnic, national and/or cultural background.

For theorists like Hall, Omi and Winant, our ideas of race are socially constructed and cannot be extracted from a context based on power. Although racial categories may appear natural, they are actually due to our socialization through the creation of symbols

Ethnicity

Ethnicity is defined by the unique characteristics of a social group, usually bound by shared identity-based ancestry, language, religion or culture. Sometimes people think that ethnic groups exist only through common national or cultural origins, but this is not accurate. In reality, an ethnic group forms because of their shared historical and social experiences. Over time, these shared experiences help to develop the group’s ethnic identity.

The concept of race and ethnicity can be confusing. We sometimes look for simple explanations to describe complex phenomena. When this occurs, we may misinterpret others and even offend them. Let’s look at an example to better understand how this can happen.

Maya and Carlos are siblings from the Dominican Republic who now live in a midsized town in Texas. They are good students who enjoy the outdoors and interacting with their peers. Maya and Carlos are bilingual and speak both Spanish and English. Despite being well mannered and friendly with most of their classmates, they experience many misunderstandings.

While sharing the same parents and cultural background, Maya and Carlos have different skin tones. Maya’s skin is a darker shade of brown, while Carlos’ skin is lighter. Maya has experienced frequent arguments with her African American friends about her supposed blackness. She knows her friends mean well but is tired of explaining to them that she identifies as Dominican and not black. Maya’s friends think she is in denial of her heritage, while Maya tries with little success to explain the nuances of race and ethnicity to them.

Meanwhile, Carlos is experiencing a different type of misunderstanding. The kids in his grade and on his baseball team, keep referring to him as Mexican. Carlos has gotten into a few skirmishes over this misunderstanding, because he has already told them where he is from. The kids who keep calling Carlos Mexican seem not to care. Sometimes when his team plays at rival schools, he even hears racial slurs aimed at him by people who assume he is Mexican, or who don’t care enough to know he’s Dominican. This enrages Carlos even more as he asks himself why these people are so stupid and insensitive.

Components of Culture

Cultures vary greatly. Even within the same country, people from different regions may differ in their values and customs. Regardless of these geographical differences, there are several shared elements within a culture including, symbols, language, values and norms.

A symbol is something that represents something else. For example, a U.S. flag represents many ideas, but at a basic level, it represents the United States. Language is a system of spoken or written symbols that creates shared meaning. In the context of culture, language helps us to express our identity and pass ideas from one generation to the next. Values are the beliefs or ideals shared by members of a culture. For example, U.S. culture values democracy. Norms are rules or expectations that guide people’s behavior within a culture. For example, it may be appropriate (and expected) that you shake hands when you meet someone. In another culture, this action may be viewed as disrespectful.

Co-Cultures

Within a culture, there may be several co-cultures. Co-cultures are groups who share values, customs and norms related to common interests or characteristics. It is a subset (a small group) within a culture. We may identify with several co-cultures based on our age, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation or other interests (such as athletic, musical, etc.).

"Skateboarders skate at Tompkins Square Park during Save Tompkins Day" by Wil540 art, 2019, WikiMedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Skateboarders_skate_at_Tompkins_Square_Park.jpg). Licensed under CC-BY-SA 4.0

Cultural Influences on Communication

We are affected by our culture, and in turn, our cultural beliefs and traditions can influence our communication behavior. Many scholars in psychology, sociology, anthropology and communication have studied cultures and cultural differences. Their work has identified several cultural differences that influence how people interact with each other. For the purposes of our discussion, we are going to focus on individualism and collectivism, low- and high-culture contexts and low- and high-power distance.

Individualism and Collectivism

There are many ways cultures can differ. Some cultures emphasize individualism, while others focus more on collectivism. In an individualistic culture, people value the individual over the group. They believe in personal rights, self-expression, innovation, autonomy and privacy. A primary motivator, in this type of culture, is competitiveness. The old U.S. Army slogan: “Be all you can be,” aptly describes the spirit of individualism.

In a collective culture, people value the interests of the group (i.e., family and community) over personal achievement. This is especially true when personal achievements conflict with the goals or values of the group. They believe in collaboration, cooperation and tradition.

Whether you are a member of an individualistic or collective culture, the ways that you are socialized will directly influence your self-concept and self-esteem. If your culture is individualistic, you may be more likely to strive toward goals that benefit your own self-interest. Conversely, if you are a member of a collective culture, you may form your self-concept around the interest and contexts of your group.

Low- and High-Context Cultures

Some cultures emphasize low-context, while other cultures prefer a high-context. Low-context cultures tend to be more pluralistic with less emphasis on shared values and norms. Communication in low-context cultures is often more explicit and direct because there are multiple individual cultures that exist within this context.

The United States is a perfect example. In the U.S., inhabitants differ in many ways including, ethnicity, religious beliefs and cultural backgrounds. As a result, communication is often candid, and traditions can vary greatly. Low-context cultures may also function with one or more native languages or be infused with languages from immigrant groups.

Listed below are some of the attributes of a low-context culture:

• Individualism and personal achievement are valued.
• Social structures are decentralized.
• Communication is a means to convey information. Interactions are less personal.
• Verbal messages are direct. Nonverbal elements are less important.
• Relationships are viewed as temporary. Individuals are transient.
• There will be a greater number of interactions with others (over lifespan).
• Interactions with people from differing cultural backgrounds is encouraged.
• Privacy and personal space are valued. Everyone is not family.
• Focus is placed on results (i.e., getting things done).
• Time is viewed in a linear fashion.
• Punctuality and speed are valued (i.e., time is money).

By comparison, high-context cultures tend to rely on history and shared experience that are reinforced through cultural values and norms. Communication in high-context cultures is implicit because meaning is created through norms and practices that have been passed from one generation to the next.

Several factors contribute to the development of a high-context culture. Traditions or a deeply rooted sense of history contribute to the development of a high-context culture. Norms and practices are embedded within family histories. Deference is shown to elders. High-context cultures are usually ethnically similar (i.e., homogeneous) and share one common language.

Listed below are some of the attributes of a high-context culture:

• Group identity is valued more than individuality.
• Social structures are highly important. They maintain cultural identity and traditions.
• Interpersonal relationships are established over time.
• Trust is developed through shared experiences. The family structure is emphasized.
• Authority figures are valued and respected.
• Social cues are subtle.
• Communication is viewed as an art based on established symbol systems.
• Verbal communication is indirect. Nonverbal communication is important.
• Gestures, tone and facial expressions are used to understanding verbal meaning.
• Space is shared. People are comfortable being near each other.
• Time is viewed in a less linear.
• Process is valued over speed.

Low- and High-Power Distance Cultures

Power is the ability for a person to influence another in a social relationship. The extent to which power is distributed among many people or is concentrated in a few, determines whether a culture is considered to have a low- or high-power distance. In 1978, philosopher Michel Foucault said, “where there is power, there is resistance.” Depending upon how power is distributed within a culture and our ability to influence others may be based on the type of power-distance culture we were brought up in.

In low-power distance cultures, power is distributed more evenly among people. People in low-power distance cultures value equality and justice. This doesn’t necessarily mean that people are treated equally. They just value the idea that people should be. Low-power distance cultures are also more democratic, and power is decentralized. Individuality is emphasized over collective identity. The U.S. is an example of a low-power distance culture.

In high-power distance cultures, power is concentrated in a few people (i.e., royalty or a ruling political party). People in high-power distance cultures are taught that certain people or groups deserve more power than everyone else. They also believe that respecting power (and those that possess it) is more important than equality. High-power distance cultures are also more autocratic.

Cultural Context and Power Distance Influence Interpersonal Communication

Our cultural context and power distance play a direct role in our socialization and the ways we communication with others. Let’s look at an example to see how culture context and power distance can influence interpersonal communication.

Nelson recently immigrated from Kenya to Florida. Nelson’s parents are professors teaching at a local university. Kenyan cultural background is high-context and relies on a long tradition of deference to elders. At his high school, Nelson notices his peers are less deferential to authority figures. Many of them engage in verbal confrontations with their teachers. These confrontations confuse Nelson.

Nelson speaks great English but sticks out because he doesn’t have a traditional southern American accent and knows no American teenage slang. He is trying his best to fit into an environment that is alien to him and wants to find a way to connect with his peers.

Being around 6 feet 5 inches tall, Nelson is encouraged to play basketball. In fact, many of the kids assume Nelson already plays basketball because he is tall and his skin is dark. He has little knowledge of the history of African Americans in the Deep South or in America in general. Sure, Nelson has read a few history books, but he is ill prepared for the racial subtleties that characterize his new context. He doesn’t understand how he’s been stereotyped.

For one, many of the students assume he’s African American until he speaks with his accent. Nelson decides to play basketball to gain friends and status. His teammates keep telling him he is black despite the fact he identities as Kenyan. Nelson assumes he is encouraged to play basketball because he is tall, but he does not realize he is encouraged to play because he’s tall and black.

Due to Nelson’s upbringing he is not as aggressive as some of the other players. His coaches are also encouraging him to assert himself more on the court. To fit in, Nelson starts to listen to hip-hip music despite the fact he loves classical music. None of Nelson’s classmates know he can play the violin, a fact he has hidden to avoid teasing.

As time passes, Nelson gains more acceptance from his peers due to his quick study of basketball and his willingness to go with the flow. As Nelson becomes more assertive, he begins to argue with his parents from time to time. Nelson’s parents have become concerned with his change in dress and his sudden interest in hip-hop. They wonder if they made the right decision for their son as his goals and attitudes are continuing to shift away from his cultural upbringing.

In this example, Nelson quickly grew sick of kids asking stupid questions about hunting lions in Africa. As a result, he did his best to assimilate into his new culture by doing things other expected of him. While this helped Nelson to fit in with his new peers, his change in behavior strained his relationship with his parents.

Nelson also experienced a culture shock in terms of power distribution. To make extra money, he gets a job at the local gym in the summer. The work isn’t too demanding, and Nelson really enjoys it because he can work out when he wants and socialize with the patrons.

Nelson is surprised at first when his supervisor Bobby asks him to call him by his first name. Nelson calls him sir, and Bobby replies, “Man, don’t call me sir, it makes me feel old, call me by name.” In staff meetings, Bobby asks for input from his subordinates. This is weird to Nelson because he is used to being told what to do by his superiors without any of his input.

Nelson’s identity has changed drastically from when he first arrived in the United States (to the chagrin of his parents). His newly adapted American self, conflicts with his Kenyan roots and traditions. Nelson’s parents are upset when he decides to put down the violin and focus on basketball. They are also not happy with his verbal sparring, which they feel is disrespectful.

This story illustrates the possible challenges we could face when our cultural context changes significantly. We are born into a world where certain behaviors are expected (based on assumed societal norms). Our lives are shaped by these norms and our identities are formed. Whether we choose to accept or reject cultural expectations depends on the level of comfort we experience in our environment. Often, it is difficult to go against the grain.

Identity Formation

Identity formation begins before we enter the world. Our cultural context dictates a range of possibilities available to us as we shape our identity. Based upon genetics and our orientation to society, we develop our identity. Experiences during our upbringing, the moral systems instilled in us by our parents or guardians and adaptations we make based on cues and interpretations from popular culture all continue to the formation of our identity. In this section, we will explore a variety of factors that influence our identity.

Personal, Social and Cultural Identities

Our self-concept is developed by our ideas about who we are and how we want others to view us. Many people help to shape our sense of self including, parents, siblings, friends, teachers as well as various forms of media we are exposed to in our formative years. As we mature, our cognitive abilities and social awareness increase and we begin to reflect on our self-concept in different ways. In this section, we will look at how our personal, social and cultural identities contribute to our self-concept.

Personal identities are aspects of self that are primarily intrapersonal and directly connect to our experiences in life. Our social identities are aspects of self that result from our involvement in social groups that we are interpersonally bound. Cultural identities are communally constructed categories that influence our social behavior.

Some people choose to follow traditional paths created by their family structures. Others may choose to reject these notions altogether. In most cases, identities are morphed combinations of moral systems passed down and individual choices based on our own experience. Every generation is a little different in regard to the influences that define them.

Political, Religious and Cultural Expectations

The cultural context also influences how we form our identities. In a low-context culture, the opportunities for individuality or deviation from our cultural expectations is greater than in a high-context culture where tradition is valued. Let’s look at an example to see how personal, social and cultural identities are negotiated.

Priya comes from a traditional Indian family. Her parents are members of a tight knit Indian ethnic community in New York City. Most of the members Priya’s ethnic community are Hindu and her family follows the values and traditions of Hinduism.

Expectations for Priya have always been high. She is supposed to follow the family tradition of studying medicine, as both her parents are physicians. In addition, Priya is also expected to marry a young man in her community who is also Hindu and studying medicine.

All goes according to the family plan when Priya goes to college. She begins her study of medicine and is enjoying the process. Things begin to change as Priya is away from home and gets to experience other cultures directly. An avid reader, Priya has always been curious about other cultures. Her peer group is both ethnically and religiously diverse. She even goes to a Christian church with her dorm mate Sarah every other week without her parents’ knowledge.

Despite her upbringing, Priya is a bit apprehensive about her parents' plan for marriage. Priya’s apprehension is exacerbated when she meets George, a philosophy student from Philadelphia. George and Priya bond over their love of philosophy and music, and soon develop a romantic relationship that Priya’s parents are unaware of.

The problem with George is he is neither Indian or Hindu nor studying medicine. George’s mother’s ethnic background is Polish, and his father is Venezuelan, he comes from a politically liberal family with less rigid moral codes than Priya’s. Adding to the dilemma, George self identifies as an atheist. Priya is in love with George but deep down is not sure if she can be with him long term.

She loves her family and respects their tradition and has no interest in alienating herself from them. At the same time, she is torn by her desire to break tradition and choose a mate on her own.

Priya’s story illustrates the difficulties of cultural expectations based on religion and politics. How we shape our identity is based on our orientation to the world, our experience and the environments that cultivate our existence. Some people will choose to follow family tradition and others may go in a different direction. Ultimately, interpersonal relationships are formed and negotiated based on our expectations and values that shape our unique sense of identity.

Traditional and Non-Traditional Roles

Gender roles can also influence the formation of identities. Within a culture, masculinity and femininity more be more or less well defined. Over time, environmental circumstances, attitudes and values may shift. While many applaud these changes and the destruction of social barriers, other lament them and desire a return to tradition. Let’s look at an example of how identity and gender roles are negotiated:

Janice is a budding basketball star who recently accepted a full scholarship to a major college. In addition to becoming a world-class athlete she also has done quite well in the classroom, maintaining a 4.0 GPA. Janice’s father and brothers are proud of her and encourage her sporting success. Despite Janice’s successes, her mother is worried about her.

Throughout her life, Matilda, Janice’s mother has tried to get her to do “girls’ activities” like learn how to cook and sew. Matilda would give her dresses to wear, which Janice hated as she is more comfortable in basketball shorts or sweats. This ongoing conflict has made Janice feel closer to her father Tom than Matilda.

Along with the conflicts with her mother, Janice also experiences difficulties in dealing with some people her age who feel threatened by her assertiveness. These conflicts began in childhood as some of the boys and girls in her class took issue with her dominance in the classroom and on the court. Janice has always been outspoken which alienated her from many of the girls at her school.

Now that Janice is receiving national fame for her basketball skills, she has a following on social media. Much of the feedback she gets is positive, but there are also a fair number of naysayers. Every time she posts, there are a few people who make rude comments about how she presents herself.

Janice has received comments like, “She thinks she’s a dude,” “get in the kitchen and make me a sandwich” and other lewd and inappropriate comments about her appearance. Janice likes interacting with her fans but often feels compelled to close her social media accounts because of the negative feedback.

In this example, Janice is struggling with some of the same issues many of us face. How willing are we to ascribe to a preconceived idea about our identity? This is a question we each have to answer for ourselves. We should be aware that assumptions about how we should act or communicate are often biases embedded within our cultural context. If our goal is to communicate more effectively, then respecting others (even if they’re different) has to be our first goal. We also should remember that when we communicate in more authentic ways with an openness to learning from others, we benefit, too.

We are constantly negotiating aspects of our identity when we communicate with others interpersonally. When our relationship also has an intercultural component, there are many additional considerations. In the next section, we will look at identity management theory and the relational phases an intercultural relationship moves through.

Identity Management

Building on the work of Erving Goffman, William R. Cupach and Tadasu Todd Imahori developed identity management theory (IMT) in 1993. IMT explains the complex management of identity in intercultural interactions. This theory views cultural identity as central to interpersonal communication. As such, IMT also examines the ways partners attempt to successfully negotiate accepted identities during intercultural interactions. In the next section, we will explore the relational phases of intercultural communication.

"Nordic walking by group of people from all ethnics, gender and age from different parts of the world," by Vijay.Shivu, 2011, WikiMedia Commons,(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nordic_walking_by_group_of_people_from_all_ethnics,_gender_and_age_from_different_parts_of_the_world.jpg). Licensed under CC-BY-SA

Relational phases of identity management

Imahori and Cupach (2005) suggested intercultural relationships move through three interdependent identity management phases: trial, enmeshment and renegotiation.

The trial phase occurs early in an intercultural relationship when partners attempt to negotiate their cultural identity within the framework of the relationship. During this phase, cultural differences can be a significant barrier to relationship development (i.e., differences in language communication style and norms).

Each partner’s knowledge of the other partner’s culture may be very limited and based on stereotypical information or images. It is important for partners to avoid identity freezing and nonsupport based of this type of information. During this phase, partners may also be more willing to risk face threats to establish an agreeable balance within the relationship.

This phase is called “trial” because there is a lot of trial-and-error experimentation. This used to identify commonalities between partners as well as boundaries for the relationship in terms of face support and face threats.

When intercultural partners find enough commonality between them, they move to the enmeshment phase. During this phase, symbols, rules and expectations converge. Partners become more involved in developing their relational identity and more willing to share their expectations in terms obligated, prohibited and preferred behaviors within their shared relationship.

As a result, partners also negotiate their own understanding of competent communication and shared relational identity. However, relational identity is not fully developed yet, and partners tend to ignore or de-emphasize cultural differences as they become more comfortable with their collective identity and relationship.

The renegotiation phase occurs when partners develop a stronger sense of their shared relational identity. During this phase, partners are able to their relationship, each other and the outside world in similar ways.

This shared perspective allows partners to view their distinct cultural identities as an asset to the relationship. Partners are also able to address cultural differences more directly because they view these differences as an important and positive aspect to their relationship.

It is important to note that while the three phases of identity management are presented as a sequence, partners in an intercultural relationship may move through these phases at different rates. They may also go back to an earlier phase if they discover new cultural differences that need to be managed.

Conclusion

Our identities begin to form before we enter the world. Our cultural context and upbringing will shape aspects of our identity in significant ways. As we mature, we have more opportunity to make choices about who we are and how we want to live. We may choose to follow the traditional path laid out for us by our parents or we may choose to blaze our own trail. Regardless of which choice (or combination of the two) we make, the more we understand about ourselves and the varied ways we negotiate our identities within the context we live, the better we will be.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Activity 1: Symbols

Prior to class, the instructor should collect various symbols. Some of these symbols should be controversial (i.e., the Confederate flag, professional sports team mascots, etc.). Show each symbol one at a time and ask the students what the symbol represents/means to them. Ask the students to think about different perspectives (if they are hesitant to discuss the symbol). Then ask the students if they think the symbol represents our culture. If so, why? If not, why not? Repeat the process for all the symbols. At the end of the discussion, ask the students to think about how language, values and norms influence our ideas about symbols and what they represent.

Activity 2: Identity Formation

Have students create a time capsule of their current identity.

Part 1- Away from class, choose five objects that reflect your identity. Items should be chosen based on their importance and relevance.

Part 2- Briefly present your objects in class. Explain why and how these objects represent your identity.

Activity 3: Identity Management

Ask the students to form small groups (3-5 students) and assign each group a different country. If possible, select countries that have different cultural and communication practices.

Part 1- Ask each group to research their assigned country in terms of cultural characteristics and communication practices:

• What are the shared symbols, language, values and norms?
• How do they approach interpersonal communication (accepted behavior/practices)?
• What are appropriate communication patterns within this culture?
• What are inappropriate communication patterns within this culture?

Part 2- After the groups have spent some time researching, ask the students what they would do if they were going to live in that country for six months (i.e., study abroad, an internship, a job opportunity). How would they approach fitting into the culture? What communication strategies would they employ? Finally, ask the groups to discuss how the relational stages of identity management may help them in this process.

Part 3- Ask each group to share their findings with the class. The instructor should facilitate this discussion and draw connections between culture and interpersonal communication more broadly.

REFERENCES

ChallengingMedia. (2006, October 4). Race, the floating signifier: Featuring Stuart Hall [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bMo2uiRAf30

Cole, N.L. (2019, August 2). So what is culture, exactly? ThoughtCo. Retrieved February 21, 2020, from https://www.thoughtco.com/culture-definition-4135409

Crossman, A. (2019, July 3). The sociology of race and ethnicity. ThoughtCo. Retrieved February 21, 2020, from https://www.thoughtco.com/sociology-...nicity-3026285

Cupach, W.R., & Imahori, T.T. (1993). Identity management theory: Communication competence in intercultural episodes and relationships. In R.L. Wiseman & J. Koester (Eds.), Intercultural communication competence (pp. 112-131). SAGE Publishing.

Foucault, M. (1978). The history of sexuality: An introduction (Vol. 1). New York, NY: Random House, Inc. Geert Hofstede. (n.d.). Retrieved February 20, 2020, from https://geerthofstede.com/culture-geert-hofstede-gert-jan hofstede/6d-model-of-national-culture/

Hall, E.T. (1976). Beyond culture. Anchor Books.

Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1014

Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G.J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. McGraw-Hill.

Hofstede’s cultural dimensions. (n.d.). Mind tools. Retrieved February 20, 2020, from https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_66.htm

Imahori, T.T., & Cupach, W.R. (2005). Identity management theory: Facework in intercultural relationships. In W.B. Gudykunst, Theorizing about intercultural communication (pp. 195-210). SAGE Publishing.

Kanopy. (1997). Stuart Hall: Race – the floating signifier. Retrieved from https://www.kanopy.com/product/stuart-hall-race-floating-signifier.

Omi, M, & Winant, H. (2015). Racial formation in the United States (3^rd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. Race and ethnicity. (n.d.). Gendered Innovations. Retrieved February 21, 2020, from https://genderedinnovations.stanford.edu/terms/race.html

GLOSSARY

Co-cultures: Groups who share values, customs and norms related to common interests or characteristics.

Collective cultures: People who value the interests of the group (i.e., family and community) over personal achievement.

Cultural identities: Communally constructed categories that influence our social behavior.

Culture: A system of learned and shared symbols, language, values and norms.

Enmeshment phase (identity management): When intercultural partners find enough commonality between them.

Ethnicity: The unique characteristics of a social group, usually bound by shared identity-based ancestry, language, religion or culture.

Ethnocentrism: A systematic preference for the characteristics of our own culture.

High-context cultures: Cultures that rely on history and shared experience that are reinforced through their values and norms.

High-power distance cultures: Concentrate power in a few people (i.e., royalty or a ruling political party).

Individualistic cultures: Cultures that value the individual over the group.

Language: A system of spoken or written symbols that creates shared meaning.

Low-context cultures: Cultures that are more pluralistic and emphasize on shared values and norms to develop meaning.

Low-power distance cultures: Distribute power more evenly among people.

Norms: Rules or expectations that guide people’s behavior within a culture.

Personal identities: Aspects of self that are primarily intrapersonal and directly connect to our experiences in life.

Power: The ability for a person to influence another person in a social relationship.

Race: The way we categorize people based on physical features (such as skin color) that is shared (to some degree) by a specific group of people.

Renegotiation phase (identity management): When partners develop a stronger sense of their shared relational identity.

Social identities: Aspects of self that result from our involvement in social groups that we are interpersonally bound.

Symbol: Something that represents something else.

Trial phase (identity management): Occurs early in an intercultural relationship when partners attempt to negotiate their cultural identity within the framework of the relationship.

Values: The beliefs or ideals shared by members of a culture.

MEDIA ATTRIBUTIONS

Nordic walking by group of people from all ethnics, gender and age from different parts of the world by Vijay.Shivu is licensed under CC-BY-SA 4.0

Skateboarders skate at Tompkins Square Park during Save Tompkins Day by Wil540 art is licensed under CC-BY-SA 4.0

US Census 2010 form extract of race section by United States Census Bureau is in the Public Domain CC0