Grammatical errors can disrupt an audience’s ability to understand your message clearly, or can simply distract from your message. Further, grammatical missteps can often weaken the writer’s credibility, potentially causing your audience to not take your message seriously.
In this section we will give an overview of the parts of speech, types of sentences, and modifier errors. As a refresher, here are some basics about grammar:
Types of Sentences
When we refer to grammar, we are generally speaking about how language is formed at the sentence level. Words are the foundation of sentences, and in the previous section we learned about what types of words make up the main part of speech. Here we focus on how we put those words together to try to create meaning. In future chapters we will keep building on this to learn about paragraphs and how we then use those in various formats like letters, memos, and reports.
The first part of this review will focus on the three main types of sentences: simple, compound, and complex sentences.
Simple Sentences
Simple sentences contain one subject–verb pair and express a complete thought. They may contain more than one subject, as in the following example:
My wife and I got married in Japan.
Simple sentences may also contain more than one verb, as in the next example:
He cut the grass and put away the lawnmower.
Here are some other examples of simple sentences and their subject–verb patterns:
The movie wasn’t very interesting. (subject, verb)
My friends and I disliked the movie. (subject, subject, verb)
My friends and I cooked and ate the meal together. (subject, subject, verb, verb)
I might watch TV or read a book after dinner. (subject, verb, verb)
Compound Sentences
The second type of sentence, the compound sentence, consists of two simple sentences joined by a coordinating conjunction.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. A comma precedes a coordinating conjunction, which joins two simple sentences.
Note
Do not be confused between a coordinating conjunction in a compound sentence and a compound verb in a simple sentence. Study the following examples carefully.
My friend plays the guitar and writes music.
This is a simple sentence containing a subject (friend) and a compound verb (plays/ writes).
My friend plays the guitar, and he writes music.
This is a compound sentence—two simple sentences joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction. The subject of the first simple sentence is friend, and the verb is plays. The subject of the second simple sentence is he, and the verb is writes.
Complex Sentences
Clauses are groups of words that contain subjects and verbs. There are two types: independent (main) clauses and dependent (subordinate) clauses. An independent clause, in addition to containing a subject and verb, expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a simple sentence. A dependent clause on its own is just part of a sentence or fragment. It must be joined to an independent clause for it to make sense and present a complete thought to the reader.
There are three types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and noun clauses. When you join dependent and independent clauses together, you create complex sentences. Study the examples below.
Complex sentence using a dependent adjective clause:
Example |
Explanation |
Vancouver has many interesting places to shop. |
independent clause or simple sentence |
which is the largest city in British Columbia |
dependent adjective clause |
Vancouver, which is the largest city in British
Columbia, has many interesting places to shop.
|
complex sentence |
Complex sentence using a dependent adverb clause of time:
Example |
Explanation |
I will tell her the news. |
independent clause or simple sentence |
as soon as I see her |
dependent adverb clause of time |
As soon as I see her, I will tell her the news. |
complex sentence |
Complex sentence using a dependent adverb clause of reason:
Example |
Explanation |
I went to bed early. |
independent clause or simple sentence |
because I was tired |
dependent adverb clause of reason |
I went to bed early because I was tired. |
complex sentence |
Complex sentence using a dependent noun clause:
Example |
Explanation |
I already know. |
independent clause or simple sentence |
what you said |
dependent noun clause |
I already know what you said. |
complex sentence |
When you are sure that you understand the lesson, you can continue with this exercise:
Agreement and Parallelism
You probably have a fairly well-developed sense of whether a sentence sounds right. In fact, that is one of the main reasons why you should get into the habit of reading your drafts aloud before you submit them for peer or instructor review. Or better yet, ask a friend to read your draft back to you. You will be surprised how many careless errors you catch just from hearing them.
One key aspect that can make a sentence sound incorrect is if the subject and verb do not agree. In properly written sentences, the subjects and verbs must agree in number and person. Agreeing in number means that a plural subject is matched up with the plural form of the verb. Although the plural of a noun often ends in -s, it is the singular of a verb that usually ends in -s.
Examples:
The rabbit hops all around the cage. (singular subject and verb)
The rabbits hop all around the cage. (plural subject and verb)
Agreement in person means, for example, a third-person noun must be matched with the proper third-person verb. This chart shows first, second, and third person for a few present-tense verbs. As you can see, most of the verbs are the same in all columns except for the third-person singular. The verb to be at the bottom also varies in the first-person singular column. So to match subjects and verbs by person, you could choose, for example, to say “I am,” but not “I are.”
Present-Tense Verbs
1st Person Singular: I |
1st Person Plural: We |
2nd Person Singular: You |
2nd Person Plural: You |
3rd Person Singular: He, She, It |
3rd Person Plural: They |
walk |
walk |
walk |
walk |
walks |
walk |
laugh |
laugh |
laugh |
laugh |
laughs |
laugh |
rattle |
rattle |
rattle |
rattle |
rattles |
rattle |
fall |
fall |
fall |
fall |
falls |
fall |
think |
think |
think |
think |
thinks |
think |
am |
are |
are |
are |
is |
are |
Examples:
It rattles when the wind blows. (third-person subject and verb)
I think I am a funny person. (first-person subject and verb)
Molly or Huck keep the books for the club, so one of them will know.
Explanation: The word “or” usually indicates a singular subject even though you see two nouns. An exception to this guideline is that if one of the subjects is plural, the verb should agree with the subject to which it is closest.
Correction: Molly or Huck keeps the books for the club, so one of them will know.
The wilderness scare me when I think of going out alone.
Explanation: When a singular noun ends with an -s, you might get confused and think it is a plural noun.
Correction: The wilderness scares me when I think of going out alone.
Each of the girls are happy to be here.
Explanation: Indefinite pronouns (anyone, each, either, everybody, and everyone) are always singular. So they have to always be used with singular verbs.
Correction: Each of the girls is happy to be here.
Pronoun agreement is another important aspect when composing sentences. Matching a pronoun with its antecedent in terms of number (singular or plural) can be tricky, as evidenced in sentences like this one:
Since student is singular, a singular pronoun must match with it. A correct, but rather clunky, version of the sentence is the following:
To avoid pronoun and antecedent problems, you should take three steps:
- Identify the antecedent.
- Determine if the antecedent is singular or plural.
- Make sure the antecedent and pronoun match, preferably by making both plural if possible.
Antecedent Identification
The antecedent is the noun that the pronoun represents in a sentence. When you see a pronoun, you should be able to understand its meaning by looking at the rest of the sentence. Look at the following sentence:
- The Smiths picked apples for hours, and they put them in large boxes.
- The antecedent for “they” is “the Smiths.” The antecedent for “them” is “apples.”
Read each of the following sentences and note the antecedent for each pronoun.
- Beth fell on the floor and found out it was harder than she thought.
- it—floor; she—Beth
- The women chatted as they jogged along with their pets.
- they—the women; their—the women’s
- When Abe lost his gloves, he backtracked looking for them.
- his—Abe’s; he—Abe; them—gloves
As sentences become more complicated or whole paragraphs are involved, identifying pronoun antecedents might also become more complicated. As long as pronouns and antecedents are used properly, however, you should be able to find the antecedent for each pronoun. Read the following sentences and note the antecedent for each pronoun.
Original: The ancient Mayans targeted December 12, 2012, as a momentous day that marks the end of a 5,126-year era. Today scholars speculate about what the Mayans expected to happen on that day and if they saw it as a time for celebration or fear. Some say that the end of an era would have been a cause for celebration. Others view it as an impending ominous situation because of its unknown nature. At any rate, you can rest assured that many scholars will be paying attention as the upcoming date draws near.
With explanation: The ancient Mayans targeted December 12, 2012, as a momentous day that marks the end of a 5,126-year era. Today scholars speculate about what the Mayans expected to happen on that day and if they (the Mayans) saw it (December 12, 2012) as a time for celebration or fear. Some say that the end of an era would have been a cause for celebration. Others view it (December 12, 2012) as an impending ominous situation because of its (December 12, 2012’s) unknown nature. At any rate, you (the reader) can rest assured that many scholars will be paying attention as the upcoming date draws near.
Singular versus Plural Antecedents
When you are writing and using pronouns and antecedents, begin by identifying whether the antecedent is singular or plural. As you can see by looking at the following table, making this determination is sometimes not as easy as it might seem.
Antecedent |
Singular or Plural? |
Explanation |
dog |
Singular |
Common singular nouns function as singular antecedents. |
singers |
Plural |
Common plural nouns function as plural antecedents. |
everybody |
Singular |
Indefinite pronouns sometimes function as antecedents. Since they refer to nonspecific things or people, their number can be ambiguous. To solve this problem, indefinite pronouns are treated as singular. Other indefinite pronouns include anyone, each, everyone, someone, nobody, no one, something, and nothing. |
team |
Singular |
Words that stand for one group are singular even though the group includes plural members. |
team members |
Plural |
By very definition, the members in a group number more than one, so the term is plural. |
coat and hat |
Plural |
When two or more nouns are joined by “and,” they create a plural entity. |
coat or hat |
Singular |
When two or more nouns are joined by “or,” the singular or plural determination of such an antecedent is based on the last-mentioned noun. In this case, “hat” is mentioned last and is singular. So the antecedent is singular. |
coat or hats |
Plural |
Since the last-mentioned noun in this set is plural, as an antecedent this set would be plural. |
coats or hat |
Singular |
Since the last-mentioned noun in this set is singular, as an antecedent this set would be singular, even though the set includes a plural noun. (Note: as a matter of style, try to avoid this arrangement by using the “[singular] or [plural]” sequence for your antecedents.) |
Antecedent and Pronoun Matches
Antecedents and pronouns need to match in terms of number (singular or plural) and gender. For purposes of clarity, try to keep a pronoun relatively close to its antecedent. When the antecedent is not immediately clear, make a change such as rearranging the words, changing from singular to plural, or replacing the pronoun with a noun. Each of the following sentences has an antecedent–pronoun matching problem. Read each sentence and think about the problem. Then check below each example for a correction and an explanation.
The singer kept a bottle of water under their stool.
Explanation: Since “singer” is singular, the pronoun must be singular. In this situation, to say “his or her” sounds odd, so the best choice would be to revise the sentence to clarify the gender of the singer.
Correction: Angela, the singer, kept a bottle of water under her stool.
Each student should complete their registration for next semester by October 5.* (please also see explanation on pg. 19)
Explanation: Often, as in this situation, the best solution is to switch the subject from singular to plural so you can avoid having to use “his or her.”
Correction: Students should complete their registration for next semester by October 5.
Everyone should do what they think is best.
Explanation: Indefinite pronouns are treated as singular in the English language even when they have an intended plural meaning. You have to either use a singular pronoun or revise the sentence to eliminate the indefinite pronoun as the antecedent.
Correction: Everyone should do what he or she thinks is best.
OR All employees should do what they think is best.
To compete in the holiday tournament, the team took their first airline flight as a group.
Explanation: Collective nouns are singular since they represent, for example, one team, one crowd, or one family. Although the pronoun “it” is used for nonhuman reference, it can also be used to reference a singular collective noun that involves humans.
Correction: To compete in the holiday tournament, the team took its first airline flight as a group.
Neither Cathy nor the Petersons wanted to give up her place in line.
Explanation: In situations involving “or” or “nor,” the antecedent must match the noun closest to the pronoun, which in this case is Petersons. Since Petersons is plural, the pronoun must be plural.
Correction: Neither Cathy nor the Petersons wanted to give up their place in line.
The dogs and the cat ate all its food immediately.
Explanation: When joined by “and,” compound antecedents are plural and, therefore, take a plural pronoun.
Correction: The dogs and the cat ate all their food immediately.
Each member is responsible for his own dues and registration.
Explanation: Using “he,” “his,” or “him” as a universal singular pronoun is no longer acceptable. Either use both a masculine and a feminine pronoun as in the first revision or change the noun to plural and use a plural pronoun as in the second revision. Stylistically, pluralizing is preferable.
Correction: Each member is responsible for his or her own dues and registration. OR Members are responsible for their own dues and registration.
Parallelism
Parallelism is the presentation of ideas of equal weight in the same grammatical fashion. This writing principle falls under the umbrella of grammar, style, rhetoric, and content. Parallelism is important in various types of sentences.
You may not realize it, but when we write, we often include lists. Lists need to be parallel in order for the sentence to be grammatically correct and for the reader to enjoy reading it. All the items in a list should be grammatically parallel. For instance, if your sentence lists a series of activities, all the items need to begin with verbs of the same tense and case.
Example:
After work, Logan bought groceries, made dinner, and watched TV.
Bought, made, and watched are all perfect past-tense verbs, resulting in a parallel list.
Remember, too, that when you join even two items with a conjunction, those two items need to be parallel. Parallel lists are especially important in well-written résumes. When you list your work duties under an employment entry, make sure that each item in your list begins with words that are parallel in part of speech, tense, and, if applicable, case.
However, achieving parallelism goes beyond the technicalities of a simple list. That congruence is something to keep in mind when your writing deals with deeper subjects or is designed to persuade an audience. Used well, parallelism can enhance your readers’ (and even your own) understanding and appreciation of a topic. The most famous line from John F. Kennedy’s Inaugural Address provides another example (a specific kind of reversal of phrasing known as antimetabole): “Ask not what your country can do for you. Ask what you can do for your country.” You’ll encounter parallelism not only in politics but also in advertising, religion, and poetry as well:
- “Strong enough for a man, but made for a woman.”
- “Do unto others as you would have others do unto you.”
- “Some say the world will end in fire, / Some say in ice.”
Parallelism is essential to well thought-out, well constructed, and easy-to-read sentences and paragraphs.
Check your understanding
Indicate if the following sentences are parallel. In cases where they are not parallel, rewrite the sentence to make it parallel.
- You may respond to our survey on the phone, visit any one of our 10 locations, or write an email.
- This position is a fast-paced, challenge, dynamic, and customer-focused opportunity.
- The problem was in production, not in planning.
- Jeremy is receiving employee of the month because he is intelligent, cares, honest, and works hard.