Index

Note: Page numbers in italics indicate illustrations.

abortion, 136, 364–65; sex-selective, 60; Trump policies on, 80

Afghanistan, 58

agency, 251, 335, 341, 368

AIDS, 180, 274

Aikman, Sheila, 128

Alatorre, J., 378

Albanian Burrnesha, 18–19

alcoholism. See substance use disorders

Amnesty International, 360

Anderson, Eric, 28

Appadurai, Arjun, 292–93

Arapesh people, 13–14

Aristotle, 294

asexuality, 8

Assam, 57, 58

Auick, Sarah L., 304–6

authoritarianism, 134, 137, 142, 144, 145, 240

backstage/front-stage behaviors, 313–14, 319, 320

Badgley, Robin, 330

Bangladesh, 56–58; domestic violence in, 62; gender equality in, 53; malnutrition in, 52

Barriteau, Eudine, 270, 279

Baruah, Swati Bidhan, 58

Batista, Fulgencio, 143, 239–41, 253

Beauvoir, Simone de, 313–14

Belgium, 358–68; in Cuba, 253; job discrimination and, 177; segregation and, 129; sexism and, 39–40, 40. See also slave trade

Benedict, Ruth, 17–18

Bhandari, Bidhya Devi, 88

Bhutan, 57

biocultural approach, 17

biological determinism, 13–17, 21

bisexuality, 8, 332. See also LGBTQ persons

Blank Noise project, 69–71

Blazoned, M., 318

Boas, Franz, 35

Bohra communities, 60

Bonino, Luis, 375, 378

bracero program, 376–79

Braff, Lara, 289–302

brain drain, 245

Branch, Enobong Hanna, 317

Brazil, 170–85; demographics of, 173; domestic violence in, 180; ecotourism in, 174, 177; unemployment in, 177–80, 185

breastfeeding, 315, 317

Briggs, Laura, 80

Burrnesha (“sworn virgins”), 18–19

Cahn, Peter S., 212

Carey, David, 142

Caribbean, 235–47; colonialism in, 235–39; gender diversity in, 246–47; maps of, 133, 234; migration from, 244–45; tourism industry of, 242–44

Carlson, Nellie, 305–6

Carrasco, Silvia, 116–29

caste system, 55–56; definition of, 99; hijras in, 98–99, 101, 104, 108, 112; of Nepal, 56, 82, 85, 93; patriarchy and, 53

Castellsagué, Alba, 116–29

Castro, Fidel, 143–44, 241, 253

Chant, Sylvia, 172

chauvinism, exculpatory, 182

Cherokee, 44

Chettri, Diwakar, 86–87

children, 16; infanticide of, 60; malnutrition of, 52; nannies of, 245, 300, 317, 318; sexual abuse of, 334, 338–39. See also parenting

China, 291

Chung, Jen, 310

cisgender, 25, 136, 293

cisnormativity, 331

citizenship: by descent, 83, 84, 89–91; of India, 57–59, 90–92; jus sanguinis/jus soli, 80–81, 91; maternal, 190–92, 198–206; naturalized, 57–59, 83–84, 89–91; of Nepal, 79–94

class, 39; inequality of, 26–27; race and, 173–74, 238, 261–62, 270–71; sex work and, 335–37, 342–43. See also intersectionality

Coca Indigenous community, 375–76, 379

colonialism, 40–46, 141, 290; in Caribbean, 235–39, 253, 271, 272; globalization and, 44, 215; “patriarchal,” 44

Columbus, Christopher, 40–41, 140, 235, 247

coming-of-age rituals, 252, 260, 262. See also quinceañeras

coming-out stories, 337–38

Confucianism, 73

Connell, Raewyn, 25–28, 171–72

consensual unions, 258. See also marriage

Cosgrove, Serena, 134–46, 150–54

COVID-19 crisis, 45–46

Crenshaw, Kimberlé, 39–40

critical race theory, 39–40

Cuba, 143–44, 183, 239–41; globalization pressures on, 253, 255; LGBTQ rights in, 246–47; migrants from, 245; quinceañeras in, 250–62; remittances to, 255; salaries in, 255–56, 261; teenage pregnancies in, 258–59; tourism in, 253, 255

cultural relativism, 5

Dahomey Kingdom, 42

Dalit caste, 55–56, 85, 98–99

Dawthorne, Nathan, 326–45

Dennis, Dannah, 79–94

Diamond, Jared, 40–41

division of labor: in Guatemala, 215–16; in Nepal, 120–21, 125–29; of plantation system, 237

divorce, 55, 93, 319

domestic violence, 60–62, 72–76, 180, 362–63. See also gender-based violence

domestic workers, 46, 119, 143; nannies as, 245, 300, 317, 318

Dominican Republic, 240, 244

Dore, Elizabeth, 241

dowry, 52–53, 61–62

Drentea, Patricia, 309

drugs. See substance use disorders

Drysdale Walsh, Shannon, 142

Dube, Joice, 23

Dygert, Holly, 190–206

Early, Mary Two-Axe, 306

educational opportunities: for Mixtecs, 195–96, 201; for Nepali women, 125–26

effeminacy, 13, 99–100, 108

El Salvador, 143, 151

emotional labor, 329

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), 38

erectile dysfunction, 146, 156–65

ethnocentrism, 5, 18, 82, 290

ethno-stratification, 360

eunuchs, 102–3, 111

Fadil, Nadia, 358, 359

Faure, Aymeric, 245

Fausto-Sterling, Anne, 9, 21

Federation of Associations for Relatives of the Detained-Disappeared (FEDEFAM), 145

female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), 60–61

femicide, 54, 151–54, 296, 330

“femininity,” 25, 99–100, 108, 326, 363

feminism, 35–38; first-wave, 36, 38, 315; second-wave, 36, 38, 315; third-wave, 37–40, 315; fourth-wave, 37, 38, 59; definitions of, 36–37, 315; Islamic, 363; Latin American, 143–45; masculinities studies and, 269–70; parenting and, 314–15, 319–20; on prostitution, 328; on salaried jobs, 129; on sex workers, 328

Ferree, Myra Marx, 171, 177

Figueroa, Mark, 272–73

Fobre, Nancy, 318–19

Foucault, Michel, 268, 273–81, 337

Fraser, Paul, 330

Freedman, Estelle, 36–37

Freud, Sigmund, 12

Friedan, Betty, 315

front-stage/backstage behaviors, 313–14

Fuller, N., 377

Galbraith, E., 285

Galen, 294

Geddes Foundation, 24

gender, 21; citizenship and, 81; definitions of, 5, 7, 314; “geographies” of, 129; kinship and, 253; race and, 356–57; sexuality and, 7, 11, 279–80. See also intersectionality

Gender and Development (GAD) approach, 269

gender complementarity, 215

gender equality: Aristotle on, 294; in Bangladesh, 53; domestic violence and, 60–62; of Indigenous women, 198; Jamaica and, 271; in Nepal, 86–88; among Q’eqchi’, 215–16

gender identities, 8–12, 314, 375; binary, 17, 21, 25, 295–96, 301; in Caribbean, 246–47; marianismo and, 135; in Nepal, 89, 93–94; nonbinary, 17–21, 101–4, 138, 145, 293, 332; nonconforming, 298–99; pronoun choice and, 103–4

gender ideologies, 9, 12–13, 35–36; in Bible, 294; Confucian, 73; globalization of, 73; history of, 12–13; of jobs, 177

gender reveal parties, 60

gender roles, 13–15, 314; “effeminacy” and, 13, 99–100, 108; “femininity” and, 25, 99–100, 108, 326; fluidity of, 175, 181, 298, 333; job-defined, 45–46; “manliness” and, 163, 276; marriage and, 175; Mexican migrant on, 383; parenting and, 317, 319; among Q’eqchi’ people, 215–16; sexual preference and, 13; sexuality and, 272, 279–80

gender studies, 25

gender-based violence, 72–76, 180, 362–63; femicide and, 54, 151–54, 296, 330; in Global North, 296–98; Guatemalan Women’s Group against, 150–54; in India, 54, 57, 60–62; in Jamaica, 273, 275–77; in Latin America, 139–43. See also sexual violence

Ghana, 42

Glasenberg, Ivan, 43

Global North, 41, 42, 289–302; definition of, 289; engendering of, 293–96; maps of, 287–89; sexual violence in, 296–98

Global South, 37, 41, 290–91

globalization, 35, 40–46, 215; Cuba and, 253, 255; definition of, 292; dis/advantages of, 45; of gender ideologies, 73; multilevel marketing and, 210–12, 216, 221–27; tourism and, 243–44

globalscapes, 292–93

glocalization, 292

Goel, Ina, 52–78, 98–113

Goffman, Erving, 313–14

Gold, Tammy, 317

Gramsci, Antonio, 26

Gregory, Christopher, 213

Guatemala, 210–27

Gupta, Hemangini, 69–71

Gutmann, Matthew, 28–29, 158, 375

Habermas, Jürgen, 374–87, 376–77

Haiti, 240, 241, 245–46

Hanisch, Carol, 315

Härkönen, Heidi, 250–62

Hautzinger, Sarah, 180

Hays, Sharon, 312

head scarfs, 55, 356, 358, 360–61, 363–66

hegemonic discourse, 357

hegemonic masculinity, 26–28, 172, 331, 340–41

hegemony, 26–27, 293

hermaphrodites, 6

heteronormativity, 28, 337; Brazilian men and, 170–85; in Jamaica, 272, 280; of quinceañeras, 257–58, 260, 262

heterosexuality, 7, 8, 27; cisgender, 25, 136, 293, 331

hijab. See head scarfs

hijras, 19, 20, 98–113; caste system and, 98–99, 101, 104, 108, 112; definitions of, 59, 98, 100; demographics of, 101; eunuchs and, 102–3, 111; as intersex, 19, 102, 111; kinship system of, 100, 102–13; livelihoods of, 101, 108–9; in Mahabharata, 110; nayak, 107; prestige economy system of, 100, 105–9, 111–12; reet ceremony of, 100, 103–4; as sex workers, 59, 101, 108–9; sexual reassignment surgeries for, 19, 108–11. See also third gender

Hinchy, Jessica, 103

Hindu nationalism, 58

HIV/AIDS, 180, 274

Hochschild, Arlie, 318

homophobia, 246, 271–72, 277, 280; hegemonic masculinity and, 27; intersectional approach to, 39; LGBTQ youth and, 337–38, 341–42

homosexuality, 7–8; decriminalization of, 102, 111, 330; gay/straight binary, 28; gender ideologies of, 13; in Jamaica, 271–72, 276–77, 280; in Mexico, 161; in Nepal, 93; in South Asia, 52; Two-Spirit people and, 18. See also LGBTQ persons

Honduras, 151

honor killings, 54. See also gender-based violence

Hopkins, Peter, 40

hormones, 7, 16

hormone therapy, 20, 108

human trafficking, 297, 331, 381

Hurston, Zora Neale, 36

immigration. See migration

impression management, 308, 312–20

India, 52–63; Caribbean migrants from, 239; caste system of, 53, 55–56; citizenship laws of, 57–59, 90–92; domestic violence in, 60–62; hijras of, 19, 20, 98–113; independence of, 53–54; sexual harassment in, 69–71, 99–100; sexual violence in, 57

Indigenous people, 17–18, 293, 332; of Canada, 304; of Caribbean, 235; of Latin America, 138, 140–41, 146, 159, 378–80; sex workers and, 329; sexual violence against, 296, 330; women’s rights of, 304–6

infanticide, 60

initiation rituals, 252

intersectionality, 39–40, 121, 170–85; definitions of, 35, 136, 171, 296, 356; Freedman on, 37; Muslim women and, 355–68; of quinceañeras, 253, 259–61; of sex industry, 335

intersex, 6–7, 19–20, 60–61; hijras as, 19, 102, 111

Inuit people, 304

Islamic feminism, 363

Islamophobia, 358–60, 365

Jamaica, 267–81

Japan, 36, 290

job opportunities for women, 116–29, 175

Johnston, Deirdre D., 317

joint-family household, 100

Kabeer, Naila, 129

Kashmir, 57

Kempadoo, Kamala, 268–69, 276

Khanal, Jhalanath, 90

kinship systems, 253; of hijras, 100, 102–13; of transgender persons, 61

Kistler, S. Ashley, 210–27

Koirala, G. P., 85

Kroeber, Alfred, 35

Kutenai people, 18

Kwiatkowski, Lynn, 72–76

ladinos, 142, 225

Lafont, Suzanne, 271

Lal, Abha, 79–94

Latin America, 134–46; authoritarianism in, 134, 137, 142, 144, 145; economic crisis of 2008 in, 138; LGBTQ rights in, 138–39; maps of, 133, 234; reproductive health in, 136

Lavell, Jeannette Corbiere, 306

Leigh, Carol, 328

Lemus, Giovana, 152–54

LGBTQ persons, 13, 105; coming-out stories of, 337–38; of Jamaica, 270, 277; in Latin America, 246–47; Queer Muslim Project and, 59; in South Asia, 59. See also homosexuality; trans identity

Liberia, 42

life-cycle rituals, 252, 258

Lorde, Audre, 37

Loyer, Jessie, 306

machi (Chile), 138

machismo, 134–35, 146; in Brazil, 170–71; definition of, 159; in Guatemala, 215–16; marianismo and, 135, 198–99; in Mexico, 28–29, 146, 156–65, 198. See also masculinity

Machung, Anne, 318

Madhesi people, 83–94

Malinowski, Bronislaw, 5, 35

Malkin, V., 377

Maloney, Susan, 310

Manusmriti (Laws of Manu), 55

Mapuche people, 138, 141

maquiladoras, 378

Margaret Mead, 13–14

Margetts, Jenny, 305–6

marianismo, 135, 198–99

marriage: of adolescents, 257–59; Brazilian norms of, 172, 175, 179–80; Caribbean norms of, 241, 246–47, 277–78; of children, 61, 205; companionate, 160, 163; consensual unions and, 258; divorce and, 55, 93, 319; gender roles and, 175, 179–80; infidelity in, 180–85, 278; kinship and, 253; quinceañeras and, 258; same-sex, 246–47; unemployment and, 179–80, 185

Marx, Karl, 291

masculinity, 172; in Brazil, 170–85; compensatory, 180–85, 278; definitions of, 25–26, 157; exculpatory chauvinism and, 182; fatherhood and, 374–87; Gutmann on, 28–29, 158; hegemonic, 26–28, 172, 331, 340–41; hyper, 334; Jamaican, 267–81; marginalized, 172, 179; Medeiros on, 25–29; in Mexico, 28–29, 146, 156–65, 198; “normative,” 28; theories of, 25–29, 268–69, 339; thwarted, 172; toxic, 300–301; types of, 28–29, 171–72; unemployment and, 179–80, 185; women’s studies on, 25. See also machismo

masculinity studies, 25, 269–70

maternal altruism, 199, 202–3

matrifocal groups, 15–16

Mayan women, 210–27

Mayblin, Maya, 177–78

McFee, R., 285

Mead, Margaret, 36

Medeiros, Melanie A., 25–29, 170–85

Menjívar, Cecilia, 142

menstruation, 21–24, 63, 157

mestizos, 141–43, 194, 254

Métis people, 304–6

MeToo movement, 37, 297–98

Mexico, 28–29, 146, 156–65; antipoverty program in, 190–206; Indigenista project of, 194–97; maternal citizenship in, 190–92, 198–206; migrant workers from, 194, 200, 374–87; neoliberal policies of, 191

Middles of the World, The (film), 178

migration, 44; from Caribbean, 244–45, 247; of Chinese workers, 239; coyotes and, 297, 331, 381; feminization of, 45; of Latin American women, 145; of Mexican workers, 194, 200, 374–87; of Nepali workers, 123; Obama policies on, 376, 379–80; remittances from, 245, 255, 380; of Sherpa families, 119–20, 123; Trump policies on, 80

Milano, Alyssa, 297–98

milpa farming, 193–94, 200, 202

Mixtec women, 190–206

Mohammed, Patricia, 269

Mohanty, Chandra, 40

Mommy Wars, 315–20

Mongols, Nepalese, 56–57

Moore, Henrietta, 315

Moravec, Michelle, 309

Moren-Cross, Jennifer, 309

Mortley, Natasha Kay, 267–81

multiculturalism, 144, 355–56, 378

multilevel marketing corporation (MLMs), 210–12, 216, 221–27

Mundugumor people, 13–14

Muslim women, 355–68

muxes (Mexico), 138

Myers, Robert, 299

mysogyny, 294

Nanda, Serena, 104–5

nannies, 245, 300, 317, 318

Native Americans. See Indigenous people

naturalized citizens, 57–59, 83–84, 89–91

Ncube, Nolwazi, 22–24

neoliberalism, 43, 137–38, 144, 191, 377

Nepal, 82–85; caste system of, 56, 82, 85, 93; citizenship requirements of, 79–94; civil war in, 83, 84; constitutions of, 80, 84–85, 88–90, 93–94; domestic violence in, 62; intersex children in, 60–61; malnutrition in, 52; Mongols of, 56–57; Sherpa women of, 116–29; third gender in, 81, 89, 93–94

Network of Rural Women in Latin America and the Caribbean (Red LAC), 145

New Guinea, 13–14

Nicholas, Sandra Lovelace, 306

Nigeria, 42

nikah halala, 55

Nolan, Hamilton, 312

Nussbaum, Emily, 310, 315

Oaxaca, Mexico, 20

Obama, Barack, 80, 297, 376, 379–80

Pakistan, 58; domestic violence in, 62; independence of, 53–54; malnutrition in, 52

Panchayat system, 82, 83

Pankhurst, Emmeline, 36

parenting, 317, 319; feminism and, 314–15, 319–20; impression management of, 308, 312–20; “intensive,” 308–9, 312; of LGBTQ youth, 337–38, 341–42; “second shift” of, 318; transnational migration and, 374–87

participant observation, 4–5, 320

Patheja, Jasmeen, 69–71

patriarchy, 27, 61–62, 300; in Caribbean, 241, 270–71; colonialism and, 44; Confucianism and, 73; in Global North, 300–301; “illegitimate” children and, 237–38; Indian caste system and, 53; masculinity and, 27–28; in Nepal, 83; normative masculinity and, 175; sex workers and, 330; “state,” 81

patrilocal society, 61

Peña Nieto, Enrique, 191

Pérez Márquez, Elizabeth, 374–87

Peru, 144

Pinto, S., 272

pornography, 328, 330

prestige economy system, 100, 105–9, 111–12

prostitutes. See sex workers

Pueblo people, 18

Puerto Rico, 238, 239, 245–46

purdah (seclusion of women), 55

Puri, Mondeep, 311

Q’eqchi’, 210–27

queer, 26, 28, 332. See also LGBTQ persons

Queer Muslim Project, 59

quinceañeras, 250–62; as colonial ritual, 254–56; parents’ role in, 259–60, 262; photos of, 251, 254–59, 261; as sexual ritual, 254–56

race, 39, 56–57; class and, 173–74, 238, 261–62, 270–71; gender and, 356–57; sexuality and, 182–83, 185, 272; “whitening” policies of, 238. See also intersectionality

racialization, 261, 357–58

rape. See sexual violence

Reddy, Gayatri, 105

remittances from migrant workers, 245, 255, 380

reproductive health, 80, 124, 136

Rhodesia, 43

Rohingya refugees, 56

Ross, Drew, 314

Rowell, Thelma, 15–16

Russia, 43, 291

Saudi Arabia, 291

Senior, Keino T., 267–81

sex, 5–7; definitions of, 5, 12; gender and, 21; safer, 277; surgical assignment of, 6, 60–61

sex education, 258

sex workers, 326–45; backgrounds of, 334–36; definitions of, 326, 327, 331; drug use by, 333–34, 336, 338–40, 343; feminist views of, 328; “gay for pay,” 342; hijras as, 59, 101, 108–9; motivations of, 332–34; stigmatization of, 327, 328, 341–44; types of, 328

sexual dimorphism, 16–17

sexual harassment, 69–71, 99–100, 297–98

sexual orientation, 7–8, 12–13, 27. See also LGBTQ persons

sexual reassignment surgeries, 19, 60–61, 108–11

sexual violence, 275–77; to children, 334, 338–39; in Global North, 296–98; male victims of, 334, 339, 343–44; substance use and, 339–40. See also gender-based violence

sexuality, 7–8, 268–69; definition of, 7; fluid, 333; Foucault on, 268, 273–81; gender and, 7, 11, 279–80; gender roles and, 272; nonlabel, 332; promiscuous, 277–78; race and, 182–83, 185, 272; repressive hypothesis of, 273–74; stereotypes of, 326; Victorian, 271

Sharma, Kedar, 90

Sharpe, J., 272

Sherpa women, 116–29

slave trade, 41–42, 141, 236–37, 239

South Asia, 51–78. See also specific countries

Sri Lanka, 52

St. Barthélemy, 239

Steiner, Leslie Morgan, 316

Steinhauer, Kathleen, 304–6

stigmatization, 337–38; of sex workers, 327, 328, 341–44

structural violence, 327

subaltern, 56–57

substance use disorders, 180, 274; sex workers with, 333–34, 336, 338–40, 343; treatment of, 344–45

Suler, John, 309

survival sex work, 336, 338

Swanson, Debra H., 317

Switzerland, 43–44

talaq (divorce), 55

Tamang, Seira, 81

Tanzania, 42

Tardy, Rebecca, 314

Taureg people, 44

Tchambuli people, 13–14

teenage pregnancies, 258–59

Telangana Hijra Intersex Trans Samiti, 59

Thakur, Dhanaraj, 270–71

Thame, Maziki, 270–71

Thapa, Manjushree, 90

third gender, 7, 52, 293; definitions of, 101; hijras as, 19, 20, 58, 59, 98–113; in Nepal, 81, 89, 93–94; transphobia and, 63. See also LGBTQ persons

Tibet, 88, 90

Torres, Gabriela, 142

tourism, 45, 213; Brazilian, 174, 177; Caribbean, 242–44; Cuban, 253, 255

trans identity, 7, 98–113, 298–99. See also third gender

transnationalism, 376–80

transphobia, 63

Tratner, Susan W., 308–20

triple talaq (divorce), 55

Trump, Donald, 80

Two-Spirit people, 17–18, 293, 332

Tzul Tzul, Ana Marina, 134–46, 150–54

Uganda, 42

unemployment, 45, 146, 319; among Belgium Muslims, 360–61; among Brazilian men, 177–80, 185; among sex workers, 332; among transgender people, 299

“untouchables.” See Dalit caste

value systems of Q’eqchi’, 213, 215, 219–20, 224–27

van Gennep, Arnold, 252

veiling. See head scarfs

Vietnam, 72–76

Wade, Lisa, 171, 177

wage jobs for women, 116–29, 175

Wallerstein, Immanuel, 41, 291, 292

Wardlow, Holly, 251

Weeks, Jeffrey, 268

Wentzell, Emily, 156–65

Wesch, Michael, 5, 11, 43–44

Weston, Kath, 105

Wilson, Kalpana, 117

Wodaabe people, 14

Women against Sexual Violence and State Repression, 57

women’s rights, 36, 143–44; educational opportunities and, 125–26, 195–96, 201; Indigenous people and, 304–6; in Nepal, 82, 86–94, 120–21, 128–29

World Bank, 377; structural adjustment policies of, 137–38; Zambia and, 43

world systems theory, 41, 291, 292

Zambia, 43–44

Zapotecas, 20

Zedillo, Ernesto, 191

Zimbabwe, 21–24

Zuni Pueblo, 18