1.2: How did the Field of Global Studies Develop?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Comprehend how the field of Global Studies developed.
• Differentiate between global and transnational.
• Review the Global Studies offerings in the California education system.

Introduction

Scholars began talking of Global Studies in the years that followed the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. The conclusion of the Cold War abruptly ended the bipolar framework that had existed since the defeat of the Axis powers in the Second World War. In its place was a new organizing framework for international affairs, though at that time no one was quite sure what this new system would be called. This blossoming system had its roots in the political and economic struggles in the 1970s and it was in the 1980s where the structures began to take shape. However, the convergence, or coming together, of a Global Studies discourse took place at the end of the 1990s (Steger and James, 2019). In the past twenty years, there has been a dramatic growth in Global Studies programs and departments. Steger (2015) writes that quite a few universities and colleges transitioned their departments of ‘international studies’ or ‘area studies’ into Global Studies programs. Nevertheless, some campuses have still maintained these traditional departmental titles.

In Global Studies, the emphasis is on the global, and is guided by the question: Does it relate to the whole world? (See Figure 1.2.1). The term global denotes a broader and a more comprehensive perspective of the world. In contrast, international studies programs involve courses that examine the interactions between two or more states, which includes comparing and identifying commonalities among these states. We are using the term state here to refer to countries, not regional political units that combine to form a greater political state (such as California being a state in the U.S.) While students, courses, and scholars in international studies would study and research problems and issues that would be considered global, the Cold War conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union prevented truly global approaches or global solutions to pressing world concerns. This is most evident with the United Nations (UN), arguably considered one of the most global institutions. During the Cold War, the UN could not move its global agenda forward. due to the competition between the two global powers. However, since the end of the Cold War, UN leaders have been able to address the dramatic rise in global challenges that had remained dormant during the Cold War, from overpopulation, to access, to ethnic conflict, to the status of women.

Area studies programs are like international studies, though it is considered a more traditional academic approach where the comparison of countries is organized geographically. It often involves the concept of cultural regions, which refer to groups of individuals united by shared language, religion, and heritage within a specific geographic zone. These regions might not necessarily correspond to existing state boundaries, and indeed they could have existed prior to the application of the concept of a modern state. Area studies scholars are experts in particular regions of the world, often hailing from that region. Courses often come from various departments and address fields such as economics, geography, language, history, and culture. Examples include the field of Latin American Studies where students take courses that focus on Latin American countries taught by faulty who research cross-nationally in the region. Additional area studies programs include African Studies and Middle Eastern Studies (see Bozonelos and Wendt, 2022, for a comprehensive list of area studies).

Additionally, you might have heard of the field of international relations, which is the realm of political engagements among states, centered on diplomacy and foreign policy considerations. The guiding question here is: Does it relate to two or more states? (See Figure 1.2.1). International relations is a subfield of political science which focuses on how states and/or international organizations or bodies interact with each other. Those interested in international relations consider questions like: What causes war between states? How does international trade affect relationships between states? How do international bodies, like non-governmental organizations, work with various states? What is the best balance of power for the global system? Individuals interested in this field of political science may be looking for careers with non-governmental organizations, the UN, and governmental think-tanks focused on U.S. foreign policy, or in teaching (Bozonelos & Wendt, 2022).

Finally, there is the academic research area of transnational studies, which is focused on the movement of people, ideas and goods across state boundaries and cultural regions. For transnational studies the guiding question is: Does it cross national borders? (See Figure 1.2.1). This area of study generally encompasses phenomena involving states from more than just one region. A good example is transnational terrorism, where organizations commit acts of violence in multiple parts of the world. The Islamic State (IS), a transnational terrorist organization, which is discussed in detail in Chapter Seven, operates in many states ranging from the Sahel region in Africa, such as Mali to Southeast Asia, such as Indonesia. Transnational studies as a field is less popular than global, international or area studies.

Figure 1.2.1: How to distinguish between global studies from other fields of study. (Author's Own Creation)

Distinguishing Global from Transnational

Distinguishing what is transnational from what is global is important, as an activity that is defined as transnational transcends national borders but might predominantly pertain to a specific world region, rather than the entire globe. Conversely, all global phenomena are inherently transnational, as they manifest beyond the confines of state boundaries or control. A great example is the difference between the phenomena of global warming and pollution, such as acid rain. Global warming is defined as the heating of the planet through the rise in greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere. This phenomenon is considered global as every region of the earth has or will be affected. Acid rain is a result of pollution, it is defined as toxic rain that consists of nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, and volatile organic compounds, which is generally derived from burning coal. Acid rain is mostly considered as a transnational environmental pollution problem, where the emissions from one state affect rain patterns in a neighboring state.

This discernment between what is international, what is transnational and what is global is not just for academics. It has real and serious ramifications for policymakers. Take for example the previous discussion on terrorism. How should a terrorist attack be analyzed? Is it an activity limited to several adjoining states (international relations), does it occur across multiple states spanning across various regions (transnational), or is it a global phenomenon that impacted all states in the world (global)? The response will depend on how the terrorist attack is understood. If the attack is international in nature, then the relations between those two or three states will matter the most. If the states are hostile to each other, then the response will not be same as if the states are allies. If the attack is transnational in nature, then the response may best be handled by a larger regional organization, such as the European Union, or through a smaller regional effort, such as the G5 Sahel Joint Force, as organization that was developed to support counter-terrorism operations in the African countries of Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger. Finally, global efforts include the UN Office of Counter-Terrorism, where Member-States coordinate efforts to prevent and respond to future terrorist attacks.

Figure 1.2.2 Logo for the United Nations Office for Counter-Terrorism. (Wikipedia Commons by Itachou is licensed under CC BY 4.0)

Globalizing the Curricula: The Trend in Higher Education 

As this Open Educational Resource (OER) textbook is funded by the Academic Senate of California Community Colleges (ASCCC), we will take a quick look at the state of Global Studies within higher education in California. The information provided below should help community college students who are planning to transfer to the California State University or University of California systems. We will also provide an overview of graduate programs in Global Studies for those who might be interested in pursuing post-secondary education. All data is accurate as of 2023.

According to the Chancellor's Office Curriculum Inventory System (COCI), there are 39 California Community Colleges (CCC) that offer an Associate’s Degree (A.A.), an Associate’s Degree for Transfer (AD-T), or a Certificate of Achievement for a total of 52 different programs. The overwhelming majority of these degrees/certificates are in Global Studies, with a few titled Global and International Studies, Global Citizenship Studies, and Global Competency. In addition, there are nine campuses that offer a degree/certificate in International Studies, and five campuses still offer a degree/certificate in Area Studies, with focuses in Africa, Asia, Latin America or the Middle East. These degrees are housed in various departments and divisions, ranging from Political Science to Business Administration. Finally, there are a total of 61 Global Studies courses that are offered across these campuses. Most of the courses are either Introduction to Global Studies or Global Issues, though there are a few differing classes, such as Globalization and Peoples and Cultures of the World, The United Nations and Global Cooperation, Globalization and Social Change, and Global Citizenship Civics.

When looking at the California State University (CSU) system, 17 of the 23 campuses have incorporated a global studies component. For example, there are eight Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) in Global Studies programs at the CSUs. Of those eight, four are housed in their own departments – California Maritime Academy, CSU Monterey Bay, CSU San Marcos, and San Jose State. The other four campuses have their B.A. programs in other departments. These include CSU Channel Islands, Cal State East Bay, Cal State San Bernardino, and Sonoma State. There are also four B.A. programs in International Studies, including California State Polytechnic University (Cal Poly), Humboldt, Cal State Long Beach, and San Diego State University.. These programs do not have GLST/GBST course prefixes but could still be considered Global Studies. Finally, there are six Global Studies tracks/concentrations housed within other majors at the CSUs. These include Interdisciplinary Studies at CSU Dominguez Hills, Liberal Studies at Cal State Fullerton, General Education at CSU Northridge, Anthropology at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo, and Social Sciences at Stanislaus State. Table 1.2.1 organizes the Global Studies offerings in the CSU system.

Table 1.2.1: Global Studies Offerings in the CSU System

CSU Campus	Department w/B.A. in Global Studies	Program w/B.A. in Global Studies	Global Studies Tracks/Concentrations
CSU Bakersfield
CSU Channel Islands		B.A. in Global Studies
Chico State
CSU Dominguez Hills			B.A. in Interdisciplinary Studies
Cal State East Bay		B.A. in Global Studies
Fresno State
Cal State Fullerton			B.A. in Liberal Studies
Cal Poly Humboldt		B.A. in International Studies
Cal State Long Beach		B.A. in International Studies
Cal State Los Angeles
Cal Maritime Academy	B.A. in Global Studies
CSU Monterey Bay	B.A. in Global Studies
CSU Northridge			B.A. in General Education
Cal Poly Pomona
Sacramento State
Cal State San Bernardino		B.A. in Global Studies
San Diego State		B.A. in International Studies
San Francisco State
San Jose State	B.A. in Global Studies
Cal Poly San Luis Obispo			B.A. in Anthropology
CSU San Marcos	B.A. in Global Studies
Sonoma State		B.A. in Global Studies
Stanislaus State			B.A. in Social Sciences

Within the University of California (UC) system, eight of the ten campuses have a Global Studies component. Four of the UCs have stand-alone departments of Global Studies – UC Berkeley, UC Los Angeles, UC Merced, and UC Santa Barbara. UC Irvine has a department of Global and International Studies, whereas UC San Diego has a department of International Studies. Five UC Campuses offer a Minor and a B.A. in Global Studies – UC Berkeley, UC Merced, UC Los Angeles, UC Riverside, and UC Santa Barbara. One campus, UC Davis, only offers a minor. Two campuses offer an Master of Arts (M.A.) in Global Studies – UC Berkeley and UC Santa Barbara. UC Santa Barbara is the one campus with a department of Global Studies that also offers a Ph.D. UC Irvine’s M.A. is in International Studies, as is their Ph.D. In contrast UC San Diego offers a Master’s in International Affairs (MIA), but a Ph.D. in Global Studies. Table 1.2.2 organizes the Global Studies offerings in the UC system.

Table 1.2.2: Global Studies Offerings in the UC System

UC Campus	Department w/B.A. in Global Studies	Program w/B.A. in Global Studies	Minor	M.A.	Ph.D.
UC Berkeley	B.A. in Global Studies		Minor in Global Studies	M.A. in Global Studies
UC Davis		B.A. in Global Studies	Minor in Global Studies
UC Irvine	B.A. in International Studies		Minor in International Studies	Global Studies, Graduate Emphasis in Global Studies	Ph.D. Emphasis in Global Studies
UC Los Angeles	B.A. in Global Studies		Minor in Global Studies
UC Merced	B.A. in Global Studies		Minor in Global Studies
UC Riverside		B.A. in Global Studies	Minor in Global Studies
UC San Diego	B.A. in International Studies		Minor in International Studies	Masters of International Affairs (MIA)	Ph.D. in Political Science and International Affairs
UC San Francisco
UC Santa Barbara	B.A. in Global Studies		Minor in Global Studies	M.A. in Global Studies	Ph.D. in Global Studies
UC Santa Cruz