11.2: Background - A History of Environmental Challenges- From the Industrial Revolution to Climate Change

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Recognize key historical moments associated with modern environmentalism

• Identify the progress and challenges associated with confronting climate change since the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution

Taking place between the late Eighteenth to the early Nineteenth Century, the Industrial Revolution marked a shift from agrarian and handcraft-based economies to industrialized and mechanized systems of production, primarily in Europe and North America. Largely powered by coal, the steam engine was a key to this revolution as it allowed manufacturers to locate their factories in growing urban centers with ready access to labor and consumers as they no longer had to rely on water (often in rural settings) to power their facilities. Combined with the increased production capabilities provided by the steam engine, this technological shift had far-reaching impacts on the environment, how people worked, and how they lived.

 

 

Figure 11.2.1: Water wheel and mill (CC0 1.0 Public Domain; via PickPik). Figure 11.2.2:  The first steam hammer, invented by James Nasmyth in 1839 (CC BY-NC; BILDE via NDLA) 

Indeed, the rise of factories and industrial centers spurred rapid urbanization as people moved from rural areas to cities in search of new employment opportunities, often because of land enclosures that resulted in farmers losing access to former “commons” (discussed in 11.3). This migration eventually created crowded and often unsanitary living conditions in urban areas, contributing to social and public health challenges. Moreover, even though rapid industrialization brought economic efficiency, the increased use of coal and other fossil fuels contributed to the buildup of atmospheric pollutants that were poorly understood at that time. For instance, the so-called “Great Smog of London,” was a severe air pollution event in 1952 England that remains one of the deadliest environmental disasters in history. The combination of cold weather and atmospheric conditions led to the accumulation of pollutants from factories and homes relying on coal for heating and power generation. The high concentrations of sulfur dioxide and particulate matter in the air caused respiratory problems, exacerbated existing health conditions, and led to a significant increase in hospital admissions and deaths, with estimates ranging from 8 thousand to 12 thousand lives (Martinez, 2019).

Figure 11.2.3: Leeds Steel Works, 1928, Yorkshire, England (PDM 1.0 Mark Crombie via Flickr) 

Growing Awareness of a Problem

Although the severity of the environmental disaster and its impact on public health drew widespread outrage, it also raised awareness about the dangers of air pollution and prompted significant changes in environmental regulations and public health policies. Indeed, while the event served as a catalyst for improved research into the health effects of air pollution and paved the way for more stringent environmental regulations, the delayed and inadequate governmental response underscored the need for more civic pressure and scrutiny of the impact industrial processes had on the environment. The story of the Great Smog was like many experiences around the world—as industrial development increased in urban settings, so did awareness of the associated environmental ills by many concerned citizens, scientists, and environmental activists. 

Historically, Nineteenth-century environmentalism was associated with the conservation efforts of individuals like Henry David Thoreau, John Muir, and Theodore Roosevelt, who shared a romantic perspective on nature, emphasizing its aesthetic and spiritual value. While these individuals were often counterproductive in addressing the racial and socio-economic elements associated with access to clean environments that subsequent environmental justice movements would confront, they nevertheless played vital roles in advocating for the protection of pristine wilderness and championing the sustainable use of natural resources via a conservation ethic. Their collective efforts helped establish and grow the U.S. National Park system, although often displacing indigenous peoples in the process, and towards the end of the Nineteenth Century, environmental movements would expand their gaze beyond conserving the wilderness “out there” by looking inward at how polluting industries were impacting where they lived, worked, and played. Indeed, the environmental justice movement began as a Black-led movement, which emphasized the intersectional impacts of race and class when it comes to not only pollutant exposure, but also lack of access to green space near their communities. 

Before the birth of the environmental justice movement, and about 10 years after the Great Smog of London, Rachel Carson published Silent Spring, a groundbreaking book that had a profound impact on environmental awareness, the modern environmental movement, and the regulation of chemical pesticides in the United States. Specifically, Carson's book highlighted the detrimental effects of the pesticide DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and other chemical pesticides on ecosystems. Her work emphasized that these chemicals not only killed target pests, but also had unintended consequences throughout the food web. Like the Great Smog, Carson’s book spurred public outrage. It led to increased pressure on the U.S. government to regulate the use of harmful pesticides and ultimately to the establishment of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970.  Silent Spring is also credited with galvanizing environmental movements of the 1960s and 1970s by inspiring activists, scientists, and concerned citizens to become more engaged in advocating for environmental conservation and the protection of natural resources beyond that of traditional conservationists. 

Building on the foundational work of Carson and the activism she inspired, environmental organizations like Greenpeace began to play a central role in raising both domestic and global awareness about issues associated with pollution and biodiversity loss. Founded in 1971, Greenpeace was a pioneer in recognizing that while most environmental challenges were experienced locally, their causes, and thus solutions, necessitated global action. Indeed, Greenpeace and similar environmental organizations engaged in activism, advocacy, and scientific research that raised global public awareness and increased pressure on domestic and international governments to act. Consequently, the 1970s and 1980s saw the convening of international conferences that addressed environmental issues on a global scale, such as the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972), which emphasized the need for international cooperation to address environmental challenges. The conference marked a turning point, as it was the first international conference to focus exclusively on environmental issues and led to the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1972. UNEP quickly became the central hub within the UN system for coordinating environmental activities. 

Figure 11.2.4:Stop the Politics Climate Treaty Now, COP15, 2009 (CC BY-SA 2.0; John Englart via Flickr) 

The International Community Responds

As scientific awareness and public opinion became more attuned to the causes and effects of environmental pollution, so did the recognition that many of these issues could no longer be addressed solely at the local level. For instance, acid rain, which is a result of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions from industrial and transportation sources, causes a range of environmental and ecological damages. Once released into the atmosphere, the pollution associated with acid rain often moves long distances, carried by prevailing winds, before being deposited via precipitation. Thus, while acid rain pollution may originate in one country, its impacts are transnational. Recognizing the need for global cooperation, the international community came together and adopted the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) in 1979 to address such concerns. A key to LRTAP’s success was that the parties to the convention met regularly to assess progress, share information, and discuss strategies for further reducing transboundary air pollution—an insight subsequent international environmental conventions would embrace.

Building on the success of LRTAP, in the 1980s, scientists began to raise concerns about the potential depletion of the ozone layer, a thin layer in the Earth's stratosphere that protects life on Earth by absorbing most of the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Researchers discovered that certain chemicals, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), were responsible for ozone depletion. Thus in 1987, representatives from various countries gathered in Montreal, Canada, to negotiate the Montreal Protocol—establishing legally binding commitments for a gradual phase-out of key ozone-depleting substances (ODS) that were damaging the ozone layer. The Montreal Protocol is often cited as one of the most successful international environmental agreements in history as it led to measurable improvements in the ozone layer's condition and by the 2000s, had prevented millions of cases of skin cancer and cataracts. Moreover, it showcased the potential of international cooperation and thus laid the groundwork for subsequent bilateral and multilateral environmental treaties and conventions as displayed in Figure 11.2.5.   

Figure 11.2.5: Key International Treaties and Conventions Addressing Environmental Challenges (from 1972 – 2019)

Treaty/Convention	Focus	Notable Actions/Success	Approximate Adoption Date
London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter	Controlling the dumping of harmful substances at sea	Establishing guidelines and restrictions on the dumping of various types of wastes into the marine environment	1972
CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)	Regulating international trade in endangered species	Protection of numerous endangered species from overexploitation	1973
Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) Convention	Addressing transboundary air pollution	Establishing protocols and agreements to reduce air pollution across national borders, including acid rain, particulate matter, and other pollutants	1979
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer	Protection of the ozone layer	Complements the Montreal Protocol for ozone layer protection	1985
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer	Protecting the ozone layer	Reduction of illegal dumping of hazardous wastes in developing countries	1989
UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change)	Addressing climate change	Key agreements like the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement	1992
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)	Conserving biodiversity and genetic resources	Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit-Sharing	1992
Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making, and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters	Promoting public participation and transparency in environmental decision-making	Key instrument for enhancing public involvement in environmental matters	1998
Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade	Regulating international trade in hazardous chemicals	Ensuring informed decision-making on the import/export of hazardous substances, protecting human health and the environment	1998
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)	Eliminating persistent organic pollutants	Phasing out the use of several hazardous chemicals	2001
Minamata Convention on Mercury	Reducing mercury emissions and releases	Phasing out the use of mercury in various products and processes	2013
Paris Agreement (UNFCCC)	Addressing climate change and global emissions	Commitments to limit global temperature rise, national climate action plans, ongoing international climate negotiations	2015
Basel Convention Amendments (Plastic Waste)	Controlling transboundary movement of plastic waste	Regulating the international trade of plastic waste, enhancing control and monitoring mechanisms	2019

Despite the above achievements, the track record of international environmental cooperation has been mixed. Indeed, depending on the respective cost-benefit analysis of states, the strength, breadth, and efficacy of many of them vary considerably. For instance, while we should not minimize the significance of the Montreal Protocol and the precedent it set, an economically viable alternative to the CFCs was already available, making the necessary changes, and thus international cooperation, much easier. Conversely, given how difficult it has been for states to transition from fossil to renewable fuels, the history associated with climate change shows how difficult international environmental cooperation can be when the distribution of costs and benefits for (in)action are unequally experienced by different states. 

In the 1980s, as scientific evidence of anthropogenic (human-caused) climate change grew, so to did concerns about the potential impacts associated with rising greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. Consequently, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in 1988 to assess the science of climate change (IPCC, 1988). Shortly after, the United Nations held the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, establishing the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The convention established a plan for stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations at a level that would prevent “dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system” (UNFCCC, 2023). The first Conference of the Parties (COP 1) to the UNFCCC took place in Berlin in 1995, marking the beginning of annual meetings focused on negotiating climate-related issues. One of the first signature achievements was the creation of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, which established legally binding emission reduction targets for developed countries (referred to as Annex I countries). Subsequent COP meetings grappled with disagreements on further emission reduction targets and the mechanisms to help countries meet their targets cost-effectively. A key sticking point was the differentiated responsibilities between so-called Annex I and Annex II countries— a distinction reflecting their historical emissions and level of economic development.

Lesser developed countries argue that MDCs, particularly those in Annex I, should bear the primary responsibility for historical emissions, provide financial and technological support to LDCs for their climate action, and take the lead in reducing emissions, which was enshrined in the UNFCCC's principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities" (UNFCCC, 1992). On the other hand, Annex I countries often argue that LDC economies should grow differently and incorporate low-carbon technologies from the start. Moreover, MDCs contended that rapidly industrializing nations, such as China, should take on more substantial commitments, leading to the development of a North-South divide, (driven by the economic and developmental differences between the more affluent Northern Hemisphere and the less affluent Southern Hemisphere), in negotiations (Bodansky, 2001). Due to these disagreements, the United States withdrew from the protocol in 2001. At the same time the U.S. was supplanted by China as the largest emitter of C02. With the U.S. citing concerns over the economic impacts and perceived shortcomings in the treaty and China disputing its status as a developed country (it argues it is still a developing country), thus entailing a different set of treaty obligations, the lack of significant engagement from the world’s largest CO2 emitters in meeting the goals of the Kyoto Protocol has undermined the hope for its success.

Global focus has since shifted to the implementation of the Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015 during COP 21, which includes commitments from both MDCs and LDCs to address climate change. Building on the foundation laid by the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement ostensibly represented a more inclusive and comprehensive global effort to combat climate change. While disagreements in the Kyoto Protocol process between Annex I and II countries continued to some extent during COP 21, the Paris Agreement aimed to strike a balance by requiring all countries to contribute to climate efforts based on their respective capabilities and national circumstances. Like the Kyoto process, a country’s ability to follow through with its Nationally Determined Commitments (NDCs), such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions, has been unpredictable due to domestic politics. For instance, the U.S. initially joined the Paris Agreement in 2016, under the Obama administration, but officially withdrew in 2020 during the Trump administration, which echoed similar objections raised by the U.S. during Kyoto Protocol negotiations. Following his victory in the following presidential election, President Biden signed an executive order to rejoin the agreement on his first day in office, January 20, 2021, emphasizing the renewed commitment of the U.S. to international climate action. Yet, communities on the frontlines of climate change still argue that more meaningful involvement of diverse communities is needed in the development and implementation of such treaties, as such inclusion can mitigate their historical tendency to place disproportionate burdens on LDCs and marginalized racial groups. Indeed, the ongoing discussions, debates, and negotiations since COP 21 reflect the complexities of addressing climate change within a global context marked by varying historical contributions, development stages, and legacies of racism and colonialism.

However, as these negotiations progress, alarm bells continue to ring as countries are not doing enough, fast enough, to mitigate the worst impacts of climate change. This sentiment is especially evident in younger environmental activists who are not only inheriting the struggles associated with the COP process, but also an increasingly warming planet. For instance, the slow pace of governments and the international community has inspired young activists, such as Greta Thunberg, who gained international recognition for her activism by staging school strikes for climate action outside the Swedish parliament in 2018, and which inspired the global "Fridays for Future" movement. Her work has energized global youth movements, which have increasingly turned to legal action to hold often reluctant governments accountable for addressing climate change, arguing that insufficient climate policies violate their rights to a stable and healthy future. These legal efforts, such as Juliana v. United States, represent a promising approach to compel stronger governmental action to prevent further climate damage.

Figure 11.2.6:Trends in atmospheric CO2 and global temperature change (CC-BY-4.0; Mueller Tadzio et al. via Wikimedia).