1.1: What is Comparative Politics?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Define key concepts within the discipline of comparative politics.
• Understand the scope of comparative politics and its place within the discipline of political science.

Introduction

Have you ever read the news and wondered,

• “Why is this country at war with another country?” or
• “Why did that world leader say or do that?” or
• “Why doesn’t this country trade with that country?” or maybe, very simply,
• “Why can’t all these countries just get along?”

If you have, you’ve already begun asking a few of the many questions scholars within the field of comparative politics ask when practicing their craft. Many of the questions and concerns within the realm of comparative politics are centered on a wide spectrum of social, political, cultural, and economic circumstances and outcomes, which provide students and scholars alike with robust and diverse opportunities for inquiry and discussion. The field of comparative politics is broad enough to enable provocative conversations about the nature of violence, the future of democracy, why some democracies fail, and why vast disparities in wealth are able to persist both globally and within certain countries. Whether a student watches or reads the news, or expresses any outward concern for global and current events, many of the problems and issues within comparative politics inevitably affect every person on the planet.

So, what exactly is comparative politics? What differentiates comparative politics from other subfields within political science? What can be gained from studying comparative politics? The following sections introduce the field, outlook, and topics within comparative politics that this textbook will further explore.

Overview

When defining and describing the scope of comparative politics, it is useful to back up and recall the purpose of political science from a broad perspective. Political science is a field of social and scientific inquiry which seeks to advance knowledge of political institutions, behavior, activities, and outcomes using systematic and logical research methods in order to test and refine theories about how the political world operates. Since the field of political science is so broad, it has a number of subfields within it that enable students and scholars to focus on various phenomena from different analytical lenses and perspectives. Although there are many topics that can be addressed within political science, there are eight subfields that tend to garner the most attention. These subfields include: (1) comparative politics, (2) American politics, (3) international relations, (4) political philosophy, (5) research methodology, (6) political economy, (7) public policy, and (8) political psychology. All of these subfields, to varying degrees, are able to leverage findings and approaches from a diversity of disciplines, including anthropology, economics, history, law, philosophy, psychology, and sociology. Given the vast scope of political science, and in order to understand where comparative politics fits within the discipline, it is useful to briefly consider each of these subfields.

Comparative Politics

This subfield of political science seeks to advance understanding of political structures from around the world in an organized, methodological, and clear way. Scholars can, for instance, analyze countries, in part or in whole, in order to consider similarities and differences between and among countries. While the name of the field itself suggests a methodology of comparing and contrasting, there is ample room for debate over the best way to analyze political units side-by-side. In this chapter, we show different ways to prepare a comparison, whether one focuses on area studies, cross-national studies, or subnational studies. Comparative politics involves looking first within countries and then across designated countries (this contrasts with international relations, which is described below, but entails looking primarily across countries, with less attention given to within-country analysis). Throughout this textbook, we discuss many of the themes for analysis, whether the scholar is focusing on “the state," political institutions, democracies and non-democracies, political identity, collective action, or political violence. After briefly considering the other subfields within political science, we will revisit the question of the definition and scope of comparative politics.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Comparativists (those studying comparative politics) look within countries and then across designated countries to compare and contrast. One theme a comparativist may study is how types of leadership, and the associated political regime types (e.g., democracy, dictatorship), differ across countries. A scholar may ask: Who are the heads of state, where do they conduct their official government work, and how does this vary across countries? (Sources (from left to right): White House by Matt Wade is licensed under CC-BY-SA 3.0; Tokyo, Japan, Seimon Ishibashi Bridge by Kakidai is licensed under CC-BY-SA 3.0; Madrid, Spain, Royal Palace of Madrid by Bernard Gagnon is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0; London, Britain, Number 10 Downing Street by Sergeant Tom Robinson RLC is licensed under Open Government License version 1.0; Reykjavík, Iceland, Bessastaðir, Wohnsitz der isl. Präsidenten by Balou46 is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0)

American Politics

This subfield of political science focuses on political institutions and behaviors within the United States. Those interested in American politics will focus on questions like: What is the role of elections in American democracy? How do interest groups affect legislation in the United States? What is the role of public opinion and the media in the United States, and what are the implications for democracy? What is the future of the two-party system? Do political parties delay important political action? Those who decide to specialize in American politics could find themselves with a variety of career opportunities, such as the following: teaching; journalism; working for government think-tanks; working for federal, state, or local governmental institutions; or even running for office.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Political scientists who study American politics have a variety of research interests, and one area of inquiry is the study of political parties and partisanship in the United States. Political parties began forming almost immediately upon the United States’ Declaration of Independence, though a number of founders, including George Washington, warned early on about the influence and possible dangers of political parties on the state of democracy. The two main political parties in the United States are the Republican Party (logo in the image on the left) and the Democratic Party (logo in the image on the right). (Sources (from left to right): Republican Elephant by Republican Party (United States) is licensed under CC01 - Universal Public Domain; Democratic Donkey by Steven Braeger is licensed under Public Domain CC0 1.0 Universal)

International Relations

Sometimes called world politics, international affairs, or international studies, international relations is a subfield of political science which focuses on how countries and/or international organizations or bodies interact with each other. Those interested in international relations consider questions like: What causes war between countries? How does international trade affect relationships between countries? How do international bodies, like non-governmental organizations, work with various countries? What is globalization and how does it affect peace and conflict? What is the best balance of power for the global system? Individuals interested in this field of political science may be looking for careers in teaching, non-governmental organizations, the United Nations, or governmental think-tanks focused on foreign policy.

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Academics involved in the study of international relations are often interested in themes of international conflict. To this end, some studies involve looking at members of the United Nations (headquarters in New York City pictured above). The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization formed in 1945 with the goal of promoting peace and preventing international conflicts. (Source: The United Nations by Tom Page is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0)

Political Philosophy

Sometimes called political theory, political philosophy is a subfield of political science that reflects on the philosophical origins of politics, the state, government, fairness, equality, equity, authority, and legitimacy. This field can consider themes in broad or narrow terms, considering the origins of political principles, as well as implications for these principles as they relate to issues of political identity, culture, the environment, ethics, distribution of wealth, and other social phenomena. Those interested in political philosophy may ask questions like: Where did the concept of “the state” arise? What were the different ancient beliefs regarding the formation of states and cooperation within societies? How is power derived within systems, and what are the best theories to explain power dynamics? Individuals who are interested in political philosophy may find careers in teaching, research, journalism, or consulting.

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Political philosophers are interested in a large scope of issues relating to the nature and basis of political power. They consider concepts like authority, equality, freedom, justice, legitimacy, and rights. The above-pictured political philosophers considered many of these themes. (Sources (from left to right): Confucious by Kanō Sansetsu is licensed under CC BY 4.0; Socrates, by Eric Gaba is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.5; Al Farabi, by Unknown Author is CC01 - Universal Public Domain; Thomas Hobbes, Line engraving by W. Humphrys is licensed under CC BY 4.0; John Locke, by Godfrey Kneller is licensed under CC01 - Universal Public Domain; Jean-Jacques Rousseau by Maurice Quentin de La Tour is licensed under CC01 - Universal Public Domain).

Research Methodology

Research methodology is a subfield of political science that seeks to consider the best practices for analyzing themes within political science through discussion, testing, and critical analysis of how research is constructed and implemented. This subfield is concerned with finding techniques for testing theories and hypotheses related to political science. An ongoing and heated debate often arises out of the proper or applicable usage of quantitative versus qualitative research designs, though each inevitably can be appropriate for various research scenarios.

Quantitative research centers on testing a theory or hypothesis, usually through mathematical and statistical means, using data from a large sample. Quantitative research can be beneficial in situations where a researcher is looking to test the validity of a theory, or general statement, while looking at a large sample size of data that is diverse and representative of the subjects being studied. Scholars in many subfields of political science can, depending on the subject they are considering, find practical applicability for quantitative research methods. Someone interested in international relations, for instance, may want to test the influence of global trade on conflict. For this, the sample size of the study may be 172 countries engaged in international trade over a period of 10, 20, or even 50 years. Looking at data from this sample, the researcher may wish to test this theory: Trade improves relations between states, making conflict less likely. The researcher testing the theory would need to find ways to quantify the two key variables over time--trade relations and conflict--and collect data for the entire sample. The method for testing this theory quantitatively would then involve statistical analysis.

Qualitative research centers on exploring ideas and phenomena, potentially with the goal of consolidating information or developing evidence to form a theory or hypothesis to test. Qualitative research involves categorizing, summarizing, and analyzing cases thoroughly to gain greater understanding. Often, given the need for detailed description, qualitative research will have a small sample size, perhaps only comparing a small number of countries at a time, or even examining an individual country as a single case study. Some of the methods for qualitative research involve conducting interviews, constructing literature reviews, and preparing ethnographies.

Regardless of a quantitative or qualitative approach, topics of interest within the subfield of research methodology focus on advancing discussions of best practices in research design; understanding causal relationships; considering how to validly and reliably measure social, economic, cultural, and political trends; and reducing errors due to issues like selection bias and omitted variable bias (among many others). This subfield is critical to all other subfields within political science, and this book will examine the topics identified above in greater detail in Chapter 2. Those who are interested in pursuing research methodology as a subfield will find career openings related not only to political science, but also to data science, mathematics, the nature of inquiry, and statistics.

Political Economy

This subfield of political science considers various economic theories (e.g., capitalism, socialism, communism, fascism), practices, and outcomes either within a country, or among and between countries in the global system. Those interested in political economy will become versed with the theories brought forth by Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Karl Marx, and Max Weber (among others) to gain greater understanding into economic systems, their outputs, and their effects on society. Political economy can be studied from the standpoints of a few other subfields in political science. For instance, a scholar of comparative politics may consider political economy when comparing and contrasting countries. A scholar of international relations may consider questions relating to global inequalities, relationships between poor and wealthy countries, or the role of non-governmental organizations or multinational corporations on international trade and finance. Those who are interested in political economy may pursue careers in analysis (e.g., of the stock market), economics, teaching, or research.

Public Policy

This subfield of political science explores political policies and outcomes, and focuses on the strength, legitimacy, and effectiveness of political institutions. Scholars in this subfield may ask questions similar to the following: How is the agenda for public policies set? Which public policy issues get the most attention, and why? How do we evaluate the effectiveness of a public policy? To what extent can a public policy hurt or help democracy? Those who are interested in public policy may seek careers relating to almost any item on the political agenda (e.g., education, healthcare, military affairs, welfare); they may go into teaching and research; or they may serve as public policy consultants for federal, state, or local governmental organizations.

Political Psychology

This subfield of political science weds together principles, themes, and research from political science and psychology to understand the psychological roots of political behavior. Is there a psychological reason world leaders behave in a certain way? Is a leader’s behavior strategic and, consciously or not, rooted in some psychological basis? Can theories of cognitive and social processes explain various political outcomes? Those who are interested in the psychological origins of political behavior may find interesting careers in teaching, research, and consulting.

Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): Political psychologists are interested in the psychological roots of political behavior. To this end, they may conduct research and analysis on various personality types and potential psychological determinants for political behavior. Political psychologists have considered the personality characteristics of the three leaders pictured above: Kim Jong-Un (North Korea), Vladimir Putin (Russia), and Xi Jinping (China). (Sources (from left to right): Kim Jong-Un, by Alexei Nikolsky is licensed under CC-BY 4.0; Vladimir Putin, by The Presidential Press and Information Office is licensed under CC-BY 4.0; Xi Jiping, by Palácio do Planalto is licensed under CC-BY-SA)

Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\) provides a graphical representation of the subfields within political science, though it is important to point out that the subfields are not necessarily mutually exclusive. For instance, public policy, political economy, and political psychology can each be analyzed through the lens of American politics, but they can also be the key point of consideration for studies within comparative politics or international relations. All of these subfields will need some level of specialization in research methodology to enable the systematic analysis of their subjects of interest. Without a basis in research methodology, these subfields would not be able to advance knowledge in the field in a substantive way.

Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\): The diagram shows the subfields of political science in relation to each other with research methodology at the center, laying the basis for high-quality work in all subfields. (Source: Author Creation.)

Given the overall spectrum of subfields available within the field of political science, we will now take a closer look at comparative politics. In the following section, we will examine the origin of comparative politics, provide an expanded definition of the subfield, and highlight terminology frequently used by comparativists (those who study comparative politics).

A Brief History and Expanded Definition

In considering the other subfields within political science, it may not seem like a complicated process to define comparative politics. Comparative politics seems to be an area of study wherein scholars compare and contrast political systems, institutions, characteristics, and outcomes on one, a few, or a group of countries. In actuality, there has been ample debate over the ideal definition and scope of comparative politics. To consider comparative politics more thoroughly, it is helpful to consider its historical origins.

Most often, comparative politics is considered to have ancient origins, going back to at least Aristotle. Aristotle has sometimes been credited with being the “father” of political science, and attributed with being one of the first to use comparative methodologies for analyzing competing Greek city-states. The word politics derives from the Greek word, politikos, meaning “of, or relating to, the polis,” with polis being translated as city-state. Aristotle envisioned the study of politics to be one of the three major forms of science individuals could engage in. The first form of science, according to Aristotle, was theoretical science, and in modern terms, this refers closest to the studies of both physics and metaphysics, which he considered to be concerned with the pursuit of truth and knowledge for intrinsic purposes. The second form of science that Aristotle identified was practical science, which was the study of what is ideal for individuals and society. The final area of science Aristotle identified was productive science, which he envisioned as the making of important or beautiful objects. To Aristotle, political science fell within the realm of practical sciences, and political science ("the most authoritative science") was of critical concern when discussing what is best for society. To Aristotle, political science must concern itself with what is “good” or “right” or “just” for society, as the lives of citizens are at stake given political structures and institutions.

It is not difficult to appreciate why Aristotle found political science, and comparative politics, so important given his overall beliefs on the function of politics within a society. In Aristotle’s time, the units of analysis were Greek city-states. If these city-states were stable, they enabled people to live productive lives; if these city-states were unstable, they did not produce such benefits. For Aristotle, it was critical to find ways to compare and contrast the city-states to understand how they operated and what outcomes they produced. To this end, Aristotle looked at the constitutions for various city-states, finding much variation in political outcomes. A city-state could have one ruler, who, depending on how the government was run, was either a rightful king or a tyrant running an authoritarian regime. Or, a city-state could have a few rulers, which, at best, could be an aristocracy, or at worst, could be an oligarchy where only the elite were included in decision-making and rewards. Finally, a city-state could have multiple rulers, balanced by a “middle” class that attempted to rule on behalf of the people’s interests. This “middle” group was not tremendously wealthy, nor woefully poor, and was able to understand the needs of society at large by virtue of being in the “middle.” While Aristotle considered democracy to have the possibility of being “deviant,” he also entertained the possibility that having more people involved in government could be a way to limit corruption. In either case, Aristotle spent much time comparing and contrasting political regime types to determine which produced the best outcomes for society.

Aristotle's work influenced a number of thinkers to continue the tradition of scientifically approaching problems in political science and comparative politics, including Niccolo Machiavelli (author of The Prince, 1532), Charles Montesquieu, (author of The Spirit of the Laws, 1748), and Max Weber (author of The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, 1905), to name only a few.

Despite its extensive history, scholars still disagree on the exact definition of comparative politics. Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) provides three definitions from textbooks in comparative politics.

Table \(\PageIndex{1}\): No, really… What is Comparative Politics?

Textbook	Definition of Comparative Politics
The Art of Comparative Politics (Lane, 1997, p. 2)	“What is comparative politics? It is two things, first a world, second, a discipline. As a ‘world,’ comparative politics encompasses political behavior and institutions in all parts of the earth… The ‘discipline’ of comparative politics is a field of study that desperately tries to keep up with, to encompass, to understand, to explain, and perhaps to influence the fascinating and often riotous world of comparative politics.”
Essentials of Comparative Politics (O’Neil, 2004, p. 3)	“Politics is...the struggle in any group for power that will give a person or people the ability to make decisions for the larger groups...comparative politics is a subfield that compares this struggle across countries.”
New Directions in Comparative Politics (Wiarda, 2000, p. 7)	“Comparative politics involves the systematic study and comparison of the world’s political systems. It seeks to explain differences between as well as similarities among countries. In contrast to journalistic reporting on a single country, comparative politics is particularly interested in exploring patterns, processes, and regularities among political systems.”

While the differences in Table \(\PageIndex{1}\) may appear small on the surface, debate on the definition of comparative politics can sometimes be contentious. For example, Zahariadis (1997) argued that comparative politics needs to be a study of foreign countries. If this is true, does it mean that someone who lives in a country is unable to study their own country and still call it comparative politics? Was Aristotle’s study of city-states methodologically flawed since he occasionally lived in different city-states? As another example, comparativists often disagree on the appropriate sample size for inquiry. Does the definition of comparative politics mandate that a researcher study a certain number of countries at a time? When Alexis de Tocqueville wrote Democracy in America (1835), was this study flawed because it only considered the political lives of Americans? If we use Zahariadis’ definition, de Tocqueville did focus on a foreign country, but since it was only one country, does it fall outside the realm of comparative politics? While we will not definitively answer these questions in this textbook, we will provide an overview of various research methodologies used within comparative politics in Chapter 2.

Note for instructors: Page edited for clarity and consistency by Katherine Michel, Ph.D. on 2/23/2025.