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4.7: Student Resources

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    Key Terms

    • Apartheid is a system of governance in which racial oppression is institutionalized.
    • Aristocracy is a form of government where power is held by nobility or those considered to be of the highest class within a society.
    • Ba’athist Party is a former transnational Arab political party that espoused pan-Arab nationalism and socialist economic policies.
    • Checks and balances is a system that provides the different branches with powers to limit one another in an effort to ensure that no branch becomes too powerful.
    • Coalitions are temporary groupings between two or more political parties.
    • Congressional legislature is a type of legislative body in which groups of legislators, elected by the people, make laws and share powers with other branches within the government.
    • Consultative legislature is a type of legislative body that advises the leader, or group of leaders, on issues relating to laws and their applications.
    • Democracy is a political regime in which the supreme power of government is vested in the people.
    • Democratic consolidation is a process in which new democracies evolve from fledgling democratic regimes to established, stable, and secure democratic regimes.
    • Democratization is a political regime transition in which a state moves from a non-democratic regime to a democratic regime.
    • Direct democracy is a government system that enables citizens to vote directly, or participate directly, in the formation of laws, public policy, and government decisions
    • Elections are the mechanism by which leaders are chosen for political office in a democracy.
    • Electoral systems are voting systems; they provide a set of rules that dictates how elections are conducted and how results are determined and communicated.
    • Executive branch is responsible for implementing and enforcing the laws made by the legislature and typically led by a president or a prime minister.
    • Fair elections are those in which all votes carry equal weight, the vote totals are counted accurately, and the election results are accepted by all parties.
    • Free elections are those in which all citizens are able to vote for the candidates of their choice.
    • Flawed democracy is a democratic regime in which elections are free and fair, and basic civil liberties are protected, but issues exist which may hamper the democratic process.
    • Head of government is the chief executive who runs and manages the day-to-day business of the state. 
    • Head of state is the chief executive who is the symbolic representative of the state (e.g., the head of state may represent the state internationally by attending ceremonial gatherings).
    • Indirect democracy, also called "representative democracy," is a type of democracy that channels the power of the people through representation, where citizens elect representatives to craft laws and make government decisions for them.
    • Judicial review is the ability of courts to interpret the constitutionality of laws and government actions.
    • Judicial branch is the part of government that resolves disputes (through courts) and interprets, applies, and determines the constitutionality of laws.
    • Legislative branch performs three main functions: (1) it makes and revises laws; (2) it provides administrative oversight to ensure laws are properly executed; and (3), it represents members' constituents in the government, ideally enacting laws related to citizens' interests.
    • Liberal democracy is a type of democracy that not only facilities free, fair, and regular elections, but ensures protections of civil liberties (e.g., freedom of speech) and civil rights (i.e., freedom from discrimination). 
    • Longevity test asserts that a democracy becomes consolidated after it holds free, fair, and regular elections for an extended period of time (e.g., for more than two decades). 
    • Majoritarian voting system is an electoral system in which candidates must win a majority in order to win the election. If no candidate wins a majority, there will be a "runoff election" between the top two vote-earners from the first round.
    • Non-democracy is a political regime that denies citizens meaningful institutional channels for making choices about their collective well-being.
    • Parliamentary legislature which is a type of legislative body in which members are elected by the people, enact laws, and choose and hold accountable the head of government (typically, a prime minister).
    • Parliamentary system is a system of government in which the chief executive, usually a prime minister, is not directly elected and is instead chosen by the legislature.
    • Plurality voting system, sometimes referred to as "first-past-the-post," is an electoral system in which the winning candidate simply earns the most votes.
    • Political parties are organized groups of people who unite under shared values to get their preferred candidates elected to political office.
    • Presidential system is a system of government, sometimes called the "single executive system," in which an elected president leads the executive branch, acting both as the head of government and as the head of state.
    • Proportional voting system is an electoral system in which the distribution of seats (e.g., in a legislature) reflects the overall distribution of votes by the population.
    • Semi-presidential system is a system of government, sometimes called "the dual executive system," in which a state has both a president and a prime minister, and the dual executives share power.
    • Separation of powers is a system that divides government functions into three areas: the legislature, tasked primarily with the making of laws; the executive, who carries out or enforces these laws; and the judiciary, tasked with interpreting the constitutionality of laws.
    • Suffrage is the right to vote in political elections.
    • Two-election test, also known as the "transfer of power test," asserts that a democracy becomes consolidated when a government that was elected through free and fair elections (election #1) is subsequently defeated (election #2), and all sides accept the election outcome.
    • Waves of democratization are moments in history when multiple countries transition to democracy during the same time period.

    Summary

    Section #4.1: What is Democracy?

    Democracy is a political regime in which the supreme power of government is vested in the people. While scholars disagree on the exact conceptualization and operationalization (measurement) of democracy, some accepted democratic themes include (but are not limited to): free, fair, and regular elections (ideally, with the inclusion of more than one viable political party); respect for civil liberties (e.g., freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of the press) and civil rights (i.e., freedom from discrimination). Democracies that not only facilitate free and fair elections, but also ensure the protection of civil liberties are called "liberal democracies."

    Section #4.2: Institutions within Democracy

    While some elements and characteristics of democracy vary, one commonality is the separation of powers among branches of government. This separation of powers between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches relies on a system of checks and balances to ensure that no  branch has too much power. The legislative branch makes laws, the executive branch carries out or enforces laws, and the judicial branch interprets the constitutionality of laws. Two other hallmark institutions of democracies are their electoral systems and political parties. Electoral systems are voting systems; an electoral system provides a set of rules that dictates how elections are conducted and how results are determined and communicated. There are numerous electoral systems in place around the world, and three major ones include plurality voting systems, majoritarian voting systems, and proportional voting systems. Political parties are organized groups of people who unite under shared values to get their preferred candidates elected to political office.

    Section #4.3: Systems of Democracy

    Depending on the relative distribution of power between the legislative and executive branches within a democracy, there are three potential systems of government: the presidential system, the parliamentary system, and the semi-presidential system. Each of these systems was designed to fit the context and culture of its democracy, and each has its share of advantages and disadvantages. The presidential system, sometimes called the "single executive system," is one in which an elected president leads the executive branch, acting both as the head of government and as the head of state. The parliamentary system is one in which the chief executive, usually a prime minister, is not directly elected and is instead chosen by the legislature (parliament). The semi-presidential system, sometimes called "the dual executive system," is one in which a state has both a president and a prime minister, and the dual executives share power.

    Section #4.4: Democratic Consolidation

    Democratization is a political regime transition in which a state moves from a non-democratic regime to a democratic regime. After democratization occurs, states embark on democratic consolidation, a process in which new democracies evolve from fledgling democratic regimes to established, stable, and secure democratic regimes. The "two-term test" and the "longevity test" are two potential indicators of democratic consolidation, and many theories exist to explain democratization outcomes.

    Section #4.5: Comparative Case Study – South Africa and Iraq

    South Africa and Iraq experienced journeys toward democracy, but with differing success in means and ends.

    Review Questions

    1. In its most basic form, liberal democracy involves
      1. economic advantage
      2. social mobility
      3. free and fair elections and the protection of civil liberties
      4. none of these
    2. Which part of an election is important to look at when determining if an election is both free and fair?
      1. before the election
      2. during the election
      3. after the election
      4. all of the above are correct
    3. When a democracy starts moving in an undemocratic direction, it is called
      1. a flawed democracy
      2. a hybrid regime
      3. democratic backsliding
      4. autocracy
    4. Groups of people who are organized under shared values to get their candidates elected to power are
      1. juntas
      2. electorates
      3. selectorates
      4. political parties
    5. The three branches of government are:
      1. electorate, legislative, and judicial
      2. judicial, executive, and political parties
      3. electoral system, separation of powers, and legislative
      4. legislative, executive, and judicial

    Answers: 1.c, 2.d, 3.c, 4.d, 5.d

    Critical Thinking Questions

    1. What are common characteristics of democracy? What variations of democracy emerge out of these characteristics?
    2. What are the differences between democratic and non-democratic regimes?
    3. What is the relationship between voting and democracy? Is the characteristic of suffrage a critical component? What are the implications for democracy if suffrage is not included in its characteristics?

    Books

    • Dahl, R. A. (1998) On Democracy. New Haven, London: Yale University Press.
    • Diamond, L. (1999) Developing Democracy. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
    • Francisco, Ronald (2000) The Politics of Regime Transitions. Routledge: Taylor & Francis Group.

    This page titled 4.7: Student Resources is shared under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Dino Bozonelos, Julia Wendt, Charlotte Lee, Jessica Scarffe, Masahiro Omae, Josh Franco, Byran Martin, & Stefan Veldhuis (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)) .