6.7: Student Resources

Key Terms

• Culture is, broadly defined, the combination of customs; social institutions; art; media; and social, economic, and political achievements of a social group.
• Ethnicity categorizes groups of people "according to common racial, national, tribal, religious, linguistic, or cultural origin[s] or background[s]."
• Gender encompasses a spectrum of characteristics ranging from feminine to masculine, and gender depends on a person's internal sense of self.
• Norms are standard practices, rules, patterns, and behaviors considered acceptable in a society.
• Parochial system is a type of political culture in which citizens are not involved, engaged, or interested in the political operations in their state. 
• Participant system is a type of political culture in which citizens are aware of government actions and able to influence and participate in governmental decisions, but they still must abide by the laws of the state.
• Political culture is a shared set of ideological views and beliefs held by a population about the political system under which they live.
• Political identity is how a person, or group of persons, think of themselves in relation to the politics and government of a state.
• Political mobilization is a process of organizing and motivating individuals with shared identities to take action on a particular political issue.
• Political socialization is the process by which an individual's political beliefs and values form, change, and solidify over time.
• Post-materialism is the extent to which a political culture focuses on or cares about issues that are not of immediate physical and material concern, such as human rights and environmental concerns.
• Race is a category of humankind that shares certain distinctive physical traits.
• Sex (or "biological sex") refers to "the different biological and physiological characteristics of females, males, and intersex persons, such as chromosomes, hormones, and reproductive organs."
• Sexual orientation is the sustained pattern of romantic and/or sexual attraction to people of opposite sex or gender, same sex or gender, or both.
• Subject system is a type of political culture in which citizens are somewhat aware and responsive to their governmental systems, but their involvement is heavily controlled and legislated by their governments.

Summary

Section 6.1: Introduction to Political Identity

Political identity refers to the labels and characteristics an individual chooses to associate with based on a multitude of factors including, but not limited to, their perception of political ideologies, platforms and parties, as well as how they see themselves from national, racial, ethnic, linguistic, cultural, and gender perspectives. One of the main reasons political scientists focus on political identity is because human attachment to these identities has been mobilized with political consequences. Political mobilization is a process of organizing and motivating individuals with shared identities to take action on a particular political issue. Political socialization is the process by which an individual's political beliefs and values form, change, and solidify over time. Political socialization occurs within families, schooling, church communities, and through all engagement individuals have with the outside world.

Section 6.2: Political Culture

Culture is, broadly defined, the combination of customs; social institutions; art; media; and social, economic, and political achievements of a social group. Culture includes norms, which are standard practices, rules, patterns, and behaviors considered acceptable in a society. States that enforce strict adherence to norms tend to have greater control over their own populations, and often less crime, and the promotion of self-control among individuals. In contrast, states that do not promote strict adherence to norms may be more disorganized and have potentially higher crime, but are more open to other ideas, cultures, and ways of life.

Section 6.3: Race and Ethnicity

Race is "a category of humankind that shares certain distinctive physical traits." Ethnicity is a broader term than race that categorizes groups of people "according to common racial, national, tribal, religious, linguistic, or cultural origin[s] or background[s]." Race and ethnicity play a major role in politics around the world, and each of these factors can be politically mobilized to influence political outcomes. Comparativists study how race and ethnicity impact (among other things) the quality of democracy, representation in political institutions, public opinion, electoral outcomes, inequality, health outcomes, and economic outcomes.

Section 6.4: Gender

Gender encompasses a spectrum of characteristics ranging from feminine to masculine, and gender depends on a person's internal sense of self. Crucially, gender is a distinct concept from sex (or sometimes "biological sex"), which refers to biological differences. According to the World Health Organization, sex refers to "the different biological and physiological characteristics of females, males, and intersex persons, such as chromosomes, hormones, and reproductive organs." Sex is typically assigned at birth based on a set of physical characteristics. Relating to biological sex, the divide between male and female has often influenced politics. Women in most societies have been historically underrepresented and discriminated against. Concerns continue to abound related to the acceptance of gender identity and sexual orientation in different political systems.

Section 6.5: Comparative Case Study - India and Japan

Japan and India are both democracies with new constitutions formed in the post World War II period. Within both countries’ constitutions, there is emphasis on equal treatment under the law for all citizens and freedom from discrimination based on race, religion, sex, and other factors of importance. Nevertheless, both countries have struggled with large gender gaps in relation to women in the workplace, women’s earnings with equal credentials and positions as men, access to healthcare, and representation in politics. Women in both countries struggled significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic, and gender gaps widened. Japan has instituted new policies to try to narrow the gender gap, while India has struggled to devise new policies to improve the gender gap.

Review Questions

1. Which of the following is the process of organizing and motivating individuals with shared identities to take action on a particular political issue?
   1. political activities
   2. political identity
   3. political mobilization
   4. Arab Spring
2. What is the process by which an individual's political beliefs and values form, change, and solidify over time?
   1. society
   2. political mobilization
   3. political socialization
   4. political identity
3. How can an individual become politically socialized?
   1. through their families
   2. through their schooling
   3. through their church or religious community
   4. all of the above
4. What is the combination of customs; social institutions; art; media; and social, economic, and political achievements of a social group?
   1. culture
   2. norms
   3. political identity
   4. political mobilization
5. What is true of states that have loose norms?
   1. they tend to be more open to other cultures
   2. they tend to experience worse economic outcomes
   3. they tend to experience better political outcomes
   4. all of the above

Answers: 1.c, 2.c, 3.d, 4.c, 5.a

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Consider your national or local political environment. How is political activity, engagement, and behavior shaped by cultural influences and broader social norms, codes, and values?
2. In what ways do cultural and political identities such as race, ethnicity, and gender become politicized?
3. How can consideration of political identity inform, or broaden, our understanding of social movements, the economy, and/or political institutions?

Suggestions for Further Study

On Political Identity and Culture

Books

• Amitav Ghosh, (1988) Shadow Lines, Ravi Dayal Publishers
• Samuel Huntington, (1996) The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, Simon and Schuster.
• Anna Tsing, (2004) Friction, An Ethnography of Global Connection, Princeton University Press

On Race and Ethnicity

Books

• Michael Dawson, Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African-American Politics
• Melissa Harris-Lacewell, Barbershops, Bibles and BET (Princeton: Princeton University Press)
• Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency
• C. Van Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow
• Donald Kinder and Lynn Sanders, Divided by Color: Racial Politics and Democratic Ideals (1997)
• Paula McClain and Stewart, Can We All Get Along? Racial & Ethnic Minorities in Amer. Politics (2005)
• Abigail and Stephan Thernstorm, ed. Beyond the Color Line (2002)
• Wolbrecht, Tillery, and Hero, ed. The Politics of Democratic Inclusion (2005)
• Wilkins, David E. 2002. American Indian Politics and the American Political System, 2d. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
• Reimers, David M. 1992. Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America, 2d. New York: Columbia University Press. Selections from the CQ Researcher. 2005. Issues in Race, Ethnicity, and Gender, 3d. Washington, DC: CQ Press.

On Gender

Books

• Gender and Elections: Shaping the Future of American Politics, 3rd Edition edited by Susan Carroll and Richard Fox. 2010.
• Women and Politics by Julie Dolan, Melissa Deckman, and Michele Swers. 2011.