Skip to main content
Social Sci LibreTexts

12.6: Student Resources

  • Page ID
    141545
  • \( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

    \( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\dsum}{\displaystyle\sum\limits} \)

    \( \newcommand{\dint}{\displaystyle\int\limits} \)

    \( \newcommand{\dlim}{\displaystyle\lim\limits} \)

    \( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

    ( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

    \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

    \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)

    \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

    \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

    \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}}      % arrow\)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}}      % arrow\)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

    \(\newcommand{\longvect}{\overrightarrow}\)

    \( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

    \(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)

    Key Terms

    • Bretton Woods System is a system stemming from a conference held in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire in 1944 that aimed to arrange and manage international economic relations after World War II. 
    • Bureaucratic authoritarianism is the management of a state through a strong bureaucratic organization that excludes the popular will of the people, and where decisions are made by technocrats, or subject matter experts.
    • Free trade is the unregulated trade of goods and services between countries, usually through the reduction of import and export controls.
    • Foreign direct investment (FDI) is domestic investment by a foreign company in the form of exports, the building of a production plant in the host country, an acquisition of a domestic company, or a joint venture.
    • Fragmentation is the fracturing of established orders, including economic, political, and cultural.
    • Global governance is the collective effort of the world's states to find lasting solutions to global problems through international institutions.
    • Global imaginary refers to people's growing consciousness of global connectivity, where people think of themselves as global citizens first.
    • Globalization describes increased interconnectedness and interdependence among states, economies, and cultures.
    • "Great Unsettling" is period in which earlier ways of acting and knowing were upended by globalization, causing uneasiness.
    • Immigrants are migrants who willingly and legally leave their home states to work and live in another state, often possessing needed skill sets or investment capital.
    • Internally displaced people (IDPs) are migrants who remain within the borders of their home state, but have fled their homes due to safety concerns.
    • International institutions are bodies of authority above the state that codify, maintain, and sometimes enforce sets of rules that govern state behavior.
    • International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international institution that manages the global monetary system and provides loans to states that experience a currency crisis.
    • Left-wing populism (social populism) combines populism with socialism, viewing the worker as needing protection from the effects of globalization.
    • Migrants are people who move from one place to another, usually between states.
    • Neoliberalism is an approach that favors free-market capitalism, deregulation, and a reduction of government intervention in the economy.
    • Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are private, voluntary organizations that unite, usually for action on specific issues.
    • Populism is a political approach that aims to appeal to ordinary people who feel that their concerns go unheard by established political leaders.
    • Refugee is a migrant who is outside their home state of nationality or habitual residence who has a well-founded fear of persecution because of their race, religion, nationality, or membership of a particular social group.
    • Right-wing populism (national populism) combines populism with nationalism, viewing the nation as needing protection from the effects of globalization.
    • Sojourners are migrants who temporarily live in a place and return to their home state (e.g., international students and temporary laborers). 
    • Temporary asylee is a migrant who intends to stay in a new place for a brief time, but is subsequently unable to return home.
    • World Bank is an international institution that provides loans and financial assistance to developing states, primarily by funding industrial projects.
    • World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international institution that supervises the trade agreements between states, with the aim of promoting free trade.

    Summary

    Section 12.1: Recurring Challenges

    States are not the only actors on the international stage, yet states remain the most important unit of analysis in comparative politics. The state faces recurring challenges due to pressures from above and below. Pressure from above comes in the form of globalization. Pressure from below comes through fragmentation.

    Section 12.2: Globalization

    Globalization is an overarching international system shaping the domestic politics and foreign relations of virtually every state. There are three areas in which we observe the effect of globalization on comparative politics: economic, political, and cultural. Economically, the ideology of neoliberalism is a driving force in the global economy. Politically, international institutions work with member-states to promote good global governance. Culturally, societal change stems from the flow of people and information through new technologies.

    Section 12.3: Fragmentation

    Fragmentation is the fracturing of established orders, and it can can take place at the individual, domestic, and global levels. Just as with globalization, we observe the effect of fragmentation on comparative politics through three areas: economic, political, and cultural. Economically, fragmentation occurs due to the uneven benefits from globalization. Politically, fragmentation appears in the rise of populism. Culturally, we observe protests against the handling of state, regional, and global issues.

    Section 12.4: Concluding Thoughts

    Comparative politics as a field of study has a wide scope. It examines issues as diverse as democratic and non-democratic regimes; the complex and fragile nature of class, cultural, ethnic, gender, national, political, racial, and religious identities; state-controlled and free market economic systems; economic and political inequalities; public participation in collective action and social movements; and the origins, causes, and consequences of political violence. The forces of globalization and fragmentation exert influence on all of these diverse issues.

    Review Questions

    1. Which two pressures do contemporary states face, each of which reflects a recurring challenge?
      1. COVID-19 and populism
      2. globalization and fragmentation
      3. politics and economics
      4. migration and technology
    2. What is globalization?
      1. the driving ideology in contemporary globalization, which promotes free-market capitalist principles worldwide
      2. the formal cooperation between three or more states on a particular issue
      3. the fracturing of established orders, be they political, economic, or cultural
      4. increased interconnectedness and interdependence among states, economies, and cultures
    3. What is fragmentation?
      1. the collective efforts of the world's states to find lasting solutions to global problems through the constellation of international institutions
      2. people's growing consciousness of global connectivity, where people think of themselves as global citizens first
      3. earlier ways of acting and knowing that have been upended through globalization, causing uneasiness among people
      4. the fracturing of established orders, be they political, economic, or cultural
    4. What was Brexit? How does it represent societal fragmentation?
      1. the United Kingdom's decision to withdraw from the European Union
      2. it led to serious economic and political consequences in the United Kingdom
      3. both responses are correct
      4. neither response is correct
    5. Why are states still considered the most relevant unit of analysis in comparative politics?
      1. the state remains the central actor in international politics
      2. the impact of globalization is best understood at the state level
      3. the state is where the negative effects of fragmentation are fully realized
      4. all of the above

    Answers: 1.b, 2.d, 3.d, 4.c, 5.d

    Critical Thinking Questions

    1. How have the forces of globalization impacted the state you live in? Has this impact has been positive or negative? Which one of the three aspects of globalization--economic, political, or cultural--has been the most relevant for your society?
    2. Have the forces of fragmentation affected your state? If so, how? If not, why?
    3. Of the two pressures, globalization and fragmentation, which do you think will have the greater effect in the next ten years? Why?

    Suggestions for Further Study

    Articles

    • Birdsall, N. (2012). "Global Citizens and the Global Economy." Center for Global Development.
    • Guo, C. (2021). "Globalization and De-globalization." In M. K. Sheikh & I. Svensson (Eds.), Religion, Conflict and Global Society: A Festschrift Celebrating Mark
    • Juergensmeyer (pp. 175–182). Danish Institute for International Studies.
    • Stepputat, F., & Larsen, J. (2015). "Global political ethnography: A methodological approach to studying global policy regimes." Danish Institute for International Studies.

    Books

    • Stiglitz, Joseph. (2002) Globalization and its Discontents. W. W. Norton & Company
    • Wolf, Martin. (2004) Why Globalization Works. Yale University Press; First Edition
    • Baldwin, Richard. (2019) The Great Convergence. Belknap Press: An Imprint of Harvard University Press; Reprint edition