Glossary

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behaviorism: focus on observing and controlling behavior

functionalism: focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment

humanism: perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans

introspection: process by which someone examines their own conscious experience in an attempt to break it into its component parts

psychoanalytic theory: focus on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior

structuralism: understanding the conscious experience through introspection

professional organization representing psychologists in the United States

study of how biology influences behavior

perspective that asserts that biology, psychology, and social factors interact to determine an individual’s health

area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior

study of cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to experiences and actions

area of psychology that focuses on improving emotional, social, vocational, and other aspects of the lives of psychologically healthy individuals

scientific study of development across a lifespan

area of psychology that applies the science and practice of psychology to issues within and related to the justice system

study of patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique

consistent pattern of thought and behavior

area of psychology that focuses on the interactions between mental and emotional factors and physical performance in sports, exercise, and other activities

dissertation: long research paper about research that was conducted as a part of the candidate’s doctoral training

PhD: (doctor of philosophy) doctoral degree conferred in many disciplinary perspectives housed in a traditional college of liberal arts and sciences

postdoctoral training program: allows young scientists to further develop their research programs and broaden their research skills under the supervision of other professionals in the field

PsyD: (doctor of psychology) doctoral degree that places less emphasis on research-oriented skills and focuses more on application of psychological principles in the clinical context

deductive reasoning: results are predicted based on a general premise

empirical: grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing

fact: objective and verifiable observation, established using evidence collected through empirical research

falsifiable: able to be disproven by experimental results

hypothesis: (plural: hypotheses) tentative and testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables

inductive reasoning: conclusions are drawn from observations

opinion: personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate

theory: well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena

archival research: method of research using past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships

attrition: reduction in number of research participants as some drop out of the study over time

clinical or case study: observational research study focusing on one or a few people

cross-sectional research: compares multiple segments of a population at a single time

generalize: inferring that the results for a sample apply to the larger population

inter-rater reliability: measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event

longitudinal research: studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over an extended period of time

naturalistic observation: observation of behavior in its natural setting

observer bias: when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations

population: overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in

sample: subset of individuals selected from the larger population

survey: list of questions to be answered by research participants—given as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally—allowing researchers to collect data from a large number of people

cause-and-effect relationship: changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design

confirmation bias: tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs

confounding variable: unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor causes changes in both variables

control group: serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study—by holding such factors constant across groups so that the experimental manipulation is the only difference between groups

correlation: relationship between two or more variables; when two variables are correlated, one variable changes as the other does

correlation coefficient: number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, and usually represented by r

dependent variable: variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had

double-blind study: experiment in which both the researchers and the participants are blind to group assignments

experimental group: group designed to answer the research question; experimental manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and control groups, so any differences between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance

experimenter bias: researcher expectations skew the results of the study

illusory correlation: seeing relationships between two things when in reality no such relationship exists

independent variable: variable that is influenced or controlled by the experimenter; in a sound experimental study, the independent variable is the only important difference between the experimental and control group

negative correlation: two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller; a negative correlation is not the same thing as no correlation

operational definition: description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables

participants: subjects of psychological research

peer-reviewed journal article: article read by several other scientists (usually anonymously) with expertise in the subject matter, who provide feedback regarding the quality of the manuscript before it is accepted for publication

placebo effect: people's expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation

positive correlation: two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller

random assignment: method of experimental group assignment in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group

random sample: subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

reliability: consistency and reproducibility of a given result

replicate: repeating an experiment using different samples to determine the research’s reliability

single-blind study: experiment in which the researcher knows which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group

statistical analysis: determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance

validity: accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure

debriefing: when an experiment involved deception, participants are told complete and truthful information about the experiment at its conclusion

deception: purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment

informed consent: process of informing a research participant about what to expect during an experiment, any risks involved, and the implications of the research, and then obtaining the person’s consent to participate

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC): committee of administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving non-human animals

Institutional Review Board (IRB): committee of administrators, scientists, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants

allele: specific version of a gene

chromosome: long strand of genetic information

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): helix-shaped molecule made of nucleotide base pairs

dominant allele: allele whose phenotype will be expressed in an individual that possesses that allele

epigenetics: study of gene-environment interactions, such as how the same genotype leads to different phenotypes

fraternal twins: twins who develop from two different eggs fertilized by different sperm, so their genetic material varies the same as in non-twin siblings

gene: sequence of DNA that controls or partially controls physical characteristics

genetic environmental correlation: view of gene-environment interaction that asserts our genes affect our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes

genotype: genetic makeup of an individual

heterozygous: consisting of two different alleles

homozygous: consisting of two identical alleles

identical twins: twins that develop from the same sperm and egg

mutation: sudden, permanent change in a gene

phenotype: individual’s inheritable physical characteristics

polygenic: multiple genes affecting a given trait

range of reaction: asserts our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall

recessive allele: allele whose phenotype will be expressed only if an individual is homozygous for that allele

theory of evolution by natural selection: states that organisms that are better suited for their environments will survive and reproduce compared to those that are poorly suited for their environments

action potential: electrical signal that moves down the neuron’s axon

agonist: drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter

all-or-none: phenomenon that incoming signal from another neuron is either sufficient or insufficient to reach the threshold of excitation

antagonist: drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter

axon: major extension of the soma

biological perspective: view that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems

dendrite: branch-like extension of the soma that receives incoming signals from other neurons

glial cell: nervous system cell that provides physical and metabolic support to neurons, including neuronal insulation and communication, and nutrient and waste transport

membrane potential: difference in charge across the neuronal membrane

myelin sheath: fatty substance that insulates axons

neuron: cells in the nervous system that act as interconnected information processors, which are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system

neurotransmitter: chemical messenger of the nervous system

psychotropic medication: drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance

receptor: protein on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach

resting potential: the state of readiness of a neuron membrane’s potential between signals

reuptake: neurotransmitter is pumped back into the neuron that released it

semipermeable membrane: cell membrane that allows smaller molecules or molecules without an electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules

soma: cell body

synapse: small gap between two neurons where communication occurs

synaptic vesicle: storage site for neurotransmitters

terminal button: axon terminal containing synaptic vesicles

threshold of excitation: level of charge in the membrane that causes the neuron to become active

amygdala: structure in the limbic system involved in our experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to our memories

auditory cortex: strip of cortex in the temporal lobe that is responsible for processing auditory information

Broca’s area: region in the left hemisphere that is essential for language production

cerebellum: hindbrain structure that controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, and it is thought to be important in processing some types of memory

cerebral cortex: surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities

computerized tomography (CT) scan: imaging technique in which a computer coordinates and integrates multiple x-rays of a given area

corpus callosum: thick band of neural fibers connecting the brain’s two hemispheres

electroencephalography (EEG): recording the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp

forebrain: largest part of the brain, containing the cerebral cortex, the thalamus, and the limbic system, among other structures

frontal lobe: part of the cerebral cortex involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language; contains motor cortex

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): MRI that shows changes in metabolic activity over time

gyrus: (plural: gyri) bump or ridge on the cerebral cortex

hemisphere: left or right half of the brain

hindbrain: division of the brain containing the medulla, pons, and cerebellum

hippocampus: structure in the temporal lobe associated with learning and memory

hypothalamus: forebrain structure that regulates sexual motivation and behavior and a number of homeostatic processes; serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system

lateralization: concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions

limbic system: collection of structures involved in processing emotion and memory

longitudinal fissure: deep groove in the brain’s cortex

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): magnetic fields used to produce a picture of the tissue being imaged

medulla: hindbrain structure that controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate

midbrain: division of the brain located between the forebrain and the hindbrain; contains the reticular formation

motor cortex: strip of cortex involved in planning and coordinating movement

occipital lobe: part of the cerebral cortex associated with visual processing; contains the primary visual cortex

parietal lobe: part of the cerebral cortex involved in processing various sensory and perceptual information; contains the primary somatosensory cortex

pons: hindbrain structure that connects the brain and spinal cord; involved in regulating brain activity during sleep

positron emission tomography (PET) scan: involves injecting individuals with a mildly radioactive substance and monitoring changes in blood flow to different regions of the brain

prefrontal cortex: area in the frontal lobe responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning

reticular formation: midbrain structure important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity

somatosensory cortex: essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain

substantia nigra: midbrain structure where dopamine is produced; involved in control of movement

sulcus: (plural: sulci) depressions or grooves in the cerebral cortex

temporal lobe: part of cerebral cortex associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language; contains primary auditory cortex

thalamus: sensory relay for the brain

ventral tegmental area (VTA): midbrain structure where dopamine is produced: associated with mood, reward, and addiction

Wernicke’s area: important for speech comprehension

biological rhythm: internal cycle of biological activity

circadian rhythm: biological rhythm that occurs over approximately 24 hours

consciousness: awareness of internal and external stimuli

homeostasis: tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system

insomnia: consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a month’s time

jet lag: collection of symptoms brought on by travel from one time zone to another that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment

melatonin: hormone secreted by the endocrine gland that serves as an important regulator of the sleep-wake cycle

meta-analysis: study that combines the results of several related studies

pineal gland: endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin

rotating shift work: work schedule that changes from early to late on a daily or weekly basis

sleep: state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness

sleep debt: result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis

sleep regulation: brain’s control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): area of the hypothalamus in which the body’s biological clock is located

wakefulness: characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior

evolutionary psychology: discipline that studies how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time as a result of natural selection

sleep rebound: sleep-deprived individuals will experience shorter sleep latencies during subsequent opportunities for sleep

alpha wave: type of relatively low frequency, relatively high amplitude brain wave that becomes synchronized; characteristic of the beginning of stage 1 sleep

delta wave: type of low frequency, high amplitude brain wave characteristic of stage 3 and stage 4 sleep

collective unconscious: theoretical repository of information shared by all people across cultures, as described by Carl Jung

K-complex: very high amplitude pattern of brain activity associated with stage 2 sleep that may occur in response to environmental stimuli

latent content: hidden meaning of a dream, per Sigmund Freud’s view of the function of dreams

lucid dream: people become aware that they are dreaming and can control the dream’s content

manifest content: storyline of events that occur during a dream, per Sigmund Freud’s view of the function of dreams

non-REM (NREM): period of sleep outside periods of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

rapid eye movement (REM) sleep: period of sleep characterized by brain waves very similar to those during wakefulness and by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids

sleep spindle: rapid burst of high frequency brain waves during stage 2 sleep that may be important for learning and memory

stage 1 sleep: first stage of sleep; transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleep; the period during which a person drifts off to sleep

stage 2 sleep: second stage of sleep; the body goes into deep relaxation; characterized by the appearance of sleep spindles

stage 3 sleep: third stage of sleep; deep sleep characterized by low frequency, high amplitude delta waves

stage 4 sleep: fourth stage of sleep; deep sleep characterized by low frequency, high amplitude delta waves

theta wave: type of low frequency, low amplitude brain wave characteristic of the end of stage 1 sleep

cataplexy: lack of muscle tone or muscle weakness, and in some cases complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles

central sleep apnea: sleep disorder with periods of interrupted breathing due to a disruption in signals sent from the brain that regulate breathing

cognitive-behavioral therapy: psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors that is sometimes used to treat sleep disorders such as insomnia

continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP): device used to treat sleep apnea; includes a mask that fits over the sleeper’s nose and mouth, which is connected to a pump that pumps air into the person’s airways, forcing them to remain open

narcolepsy: sleep disorder in which the sufferer cannot resist falling to sleep at inopportune times

night terror: sleep disorder in which the sleeper experiences a sense of panic and may scream or attempt to escape from the immediate environment

obstructive sleep apnea: sleep disorder defined by episodes when breathing stops during sleep as a result of blockage of the airway

parinsomnia: one of a group of sleep disorders characterized by unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep

REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD): sleep disorder in which the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur; sleepers have high levels of physical activity during REM sleep, especially during disturbing dreams

restless leg syndrome: sleep disorder in which the sufferer has uncomfortable sensations in the legs when trying to fall asleep that are relieved by moving the legs

sleep apnea: sleep disorder defined by episodes during which breathing stops during sleep

sleepwalking: (also, somnambulism) sleep disorder in which the sleeper engages in relatively complex behaviors

sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS): infant (one year old or younger) with no apparent medical condition suddenly dies during sleep

codeine: opiate with relatively low potency often prescribed for minor pain

depressant: drug that tends to suppress central nervous system activity

euphoric high: feelings of intense elation and pleasure from drug use

hallucinogen: one of a class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences, often with vivid hallucinations

methadone: synthetic opioid that is less euphorogenic than heroin and similar drugs; used to manage withdrawal symptoms in opiate users

methadone clinic: uses methadone to treat withdrawal symptoms in opiate users

methamphetamine: type of amphetamine that can be made from pseudoephedrine, an over-the-counter drug; widely manufactured and abused

opiate/opioid: one of a category of drugs that has strong analgesic properties; opiates are produced from the resin of the opium poppy; includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine

physical dependence: changes in normal bodily functions that cause a drug user to experience withdrawal symptoms upon cessation of use

psychological dependence: emotional, rather than a physical, need for a drug which may be used to relieve psychological distress

stimulant: drug that tends to increase overall levels of neural activity; includes caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine

tolerance: state of requiring increasing quantities of the drug to gain the desired effect

withdrawal: variety of negative symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued

hypnosis: state of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli

meditation: clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus

amplitude: height of a wave

decibel (dB): logarithmic unit of sound intensity

electromagnetic spectrum: all the electromagnetic radiation that occurs in our environment

frequency: number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period

hertz (Hz): cycles per second; measure of frequency

peak: (also, crest) highest point of a wave

pitch: perception of a sound’s frequency

timbre: sound’s purity

trough: lowest point of a wave

visible spectrum: portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that we can see

wavelength: length of a wave from one peak to the next peak

afterimage: continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus

binocular cue: cue that relies on the use of both eyes

binocular disparity: slightly different view of the world that each eye receives

blind spot: point where we cannot respond to visual information in that portion of the visual field

cone: specialized photoreceptor that works best in bright light conditions and detects color

cornea: transparent covering over the eye

depth perception: ability to perceive depth

fovea: small indentation in the retina that contains cones

iris: colored portion of the eye

lens: curved, transparent structure that provides additional focus for light entering the eye

linear perspective: perceive depth in an image when two parallel lines seem to converge

monocular cue: cue that requires only one eye

opponent-process theory of color perception: color is coded in opponent pairs: black-white, yellow-blue, and red-green

optic chiasm: X-shaped structure that sits just below the brain’s ventral surface; represents the merging of the optic nerves from the two eyes and the separation of information from the two sides of the visual field to the opposite side of the brain

optic nerve: carries visual information from the retina to the brain

photoreceptor: light-detecting cell

pupil: small opening in the eye through which light passes

retina: light-sensitive lining of the eye

rod: specialized photoreceptor that works well in low light conditions

trichromatic theory of color perception: color vision is mediated by the activity across the three groups of cones

basilar membrane: thin strip of tissue within the cochlea that contains the hair cells which serve as the sensory receptors for the auditory system

binaural cue: two-eared cue to localize sound

cochlea: fluid-filled, snail-shaped structure that contains the sensory receptor cells of the auditory system

cochlear implant: electronic device that consists of a microphone, a speech processor, and an electrode array to directly stimulate the auditory nerve to transmit information to the brain

conductive hearing loss: failure in the vibration of the eardrum and/or movement of the ossicles

congenital deafness: deafness from birth

deafness: partial or complete inability to hear

hair cell: auditory receptor cell of the inner ear

incus: middle ear ossicle; also known as the anvil

interaural level difference: sound coming from one side of the body is more intense at the closest ear because of the attenuation of the sound wave as it passes through the head

interaural timing difference: small difference in the time at which a given sound wave arrives at each ear

malleus: middle ear ossicle; also known as the hammer

Ménière's disease: results in a degeneration of inner ear structures that can lead to hearing loss, tinnitus, vertigo, and an increase in pressure within the inner ear

monaural cue: one-eared cue to localize sound

pinna: visible part of the ear that protrudes from the head

place theory of pitch perception: different portions of the basilar membrane are sensitive to sounds of different frequencies

sensorineural hearing loss: failure to transmit neural signals from the cochlea to the brain

stapes: middle ear ossicle; also known as the stirrup

temporal theory of pitch perception: sound’s frequency is coded by the activity level of a sensory neuron

tympanic membrane: eardrum

vertigo: spinning sensation

congenital insensitivity to pain (congenital analgesia): genetic disorder that results in the inability to experience pain

inflammatory pain: signal that some type of tissue damage has occurred

kinesthesia: perception of the body’s movement through space

Meissner’s corpuscle: touch receptor that responds to pressure and lower frequency vibrations

Merkel’s disk: touch receptor that responds to light touch

neuropathic pain: pain from damage to neurons of either the peripheral or central nervous system

nociception: sensory signal indicating potential harm and maybe pain

olfactory bulb: bulb-like structure at the tip of the frontal lobe, where the olfactory nerves begin

olfactory receptor: sensory cell for the olfactory system

Pacinian corpuscle: touch receptor that detects transient pressure and higher frequency vibrations

pheromone: chemical message sent by another individual

proprioception: perception of body position

Ruffini corpuscle: touch receptor that detects stretch

taste bud: grouping of taste receptor cells with hair-like extensions that protrude into the central pore of the taste bud

thermoception: temperature perception

umami: taste for monosodium glutamate

vestibular sense: contributes to our ability to maintain balance and body posture

closure: organizing our perceptions into complete objects rather than as a series of parts

figure-ground relationship: segmenting our visual world into figure and ground

Gestalt psychology: field of psychology based on the idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts

good continuation: (also, continuity) we are more likely to perceive continuous, smooth flowing lines rather than jagged, broken lines

pattern perception: ability to discriminate among different figures and shapes

perceptual hypothesis: educated guess used to interpret sensory information

principle of closure: organize perceptions into complete objects rather than as a series of parts

proximity: things that are close to one another tend to be grouped together

similarity: things that are alike tend to be grouped together

acquisition: period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the conditioned response
classical conditioning: learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior
conditioned response (CR): response caused by the conditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus (CS): stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus
extinction: decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus
habituation: when we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change
higher-order conditioning: (also, second-order conditioning) using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus
neutral stimulus (NS): stimulus that does not initially elicit a response
spontaneous recovery: return of a previously extinguished conditioned response
stimulus discrimination: ability to respond differently to similar stimuli
stimulus generalization: demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus
unconditioned response (UCR): natural (unlearned) behavior to a given stimulus
unconditioned stimulus (UCS): stimulus that elicits a reflexive response

model: person who performs a behavior that serves as an example (in observational learning)

observational learning: type of learning that occurs by watching others

vicarious punishment: process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model’s behavior

vicarious reinforcement: process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model’s behavior

artificial concept: concept that is defined by a very specific set of characteristics

cognition: thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving, judgment, and memory

cognitive psychology: field of psychology dedicated to studying every aspect of how people think

concept: category or grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, or life experiences

cognitive script: set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as an event schema

event schema: set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as a cognitive script

natural concept: mental groupings that are created “naturally” through your experiences

prototype: best representation of a concept

role schema: set of expectations that define the behaviors of a person occupying a particular role

schema: (plural = schemata) mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts

grammar: set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of a lexicon

language: communication system that involves using words to transmit information from one individual to another

lexicon: the words of a given language

morpheme: smallest unit of language that conveys some type of meaning

overgeneralization: extension of a rule that exists in a given language to an exception to the rule

phoneme: basic sound unit of a given language

semantics: process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words

syntax: manner by which words are organized into sentences

Glossary Entries
		Image	Caption	Link	Source

American Psychological Association

biopsychology

biopsychosocial model

clinical psychology

cognitive psychology

counseling psychology

developmental psychology

forensic psychology

personality psychology

personality trait

sport and exercise psychology

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