11.3: Homo Neanderthalensis

The material that became the holotype for the species was discovered in the Neander Valley  near Dusseldorf, Germany. The German word for valley is “thal,” and the “h” is silent. The “h” has been dropped for the common name in some sources. 

Although Homo  neanderthalensis  was originally included in our own genus and species but distinguished by subspecies status, i.e. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, increasing evidence from DNA analysis suggests that the two lineages split sometime prior to 300 kya and, if new DNA evidence is correct, possibly prior to 800 kya. However, DNA evidence shows that they interbred, possibly as AMH migrated out of Africa one or more times or cohabited with Neanderthals in the Middle East. Eurasians and Australasians carry, on average, 2.5% Neanderthal genes. Therefore, the Assimilation Model (above) still fits this scenario.

It is refreshing to learn that populations of hominins have been interbreeding and maintaining or forming genetic relationships since the beginning of “our” time. We modern humans are much more closely related to one another than were those ancient hominin “species” and yet some of us do not see ourselves in others due to physical differences that mean no more than that we went different ways at different times and adapted to different environments.

Regardless of the Neanderthal/ human/ Denisovan phylogeny, a group of H. heidelbergensis  moved into Western Europe, where a localized group then evolved into the Neanderthal lineage <300 kya. Transitional forms can be seen in several locales in Western Europe, especially Spain, France, and Germany.

As Pleistocene Europe became colder, Neanderthals adapted to the harsher conditions. The Neanderthals from Western Europe, with their stunted and cold-adapted bodies, are known as the “Classic” Neanderthals, as distinct from those to the east and southeast that retained a more gracile morphology. Dates for the Classic Neanderthals range from 75 to <30 kya. The figure shows Neanderthal sites in Eurasia.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Neanderthal sites. “Carte Neanderthaliens” by 120 is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0.

Fossil sites are ubiquitous in Western Europe, with the majority located in well-watered river valleys of France. More than 200 sites fall within a 20-mile radius of Les Ezies, France. There are also sites in Germany, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, and Italy. Some of the more famous sites are La Chapelle-aux-Saints, La Ferrassie, and St. Cesaire in France; the aforementioned Neander Valley in Germany; and Zafarraya Cave in Spain.

The Chapelle-aux-Saints site has played a key role in the development of the myth of the Neanderthals as hulking, barbaric cavemen. The remains of an approximately 40-year-old male (see Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)) were excavated in 1908 and analyzed by Marcellin Boule, who characterized the individual as primitive, brutish, and hunched over. Researchers later realized that the adult was afflicted with arthritis, which accounted for his posture.

While we cannot know how Neanderthals behaved relative to ourselves, they achieved a theretofore unprecedented level of cultural and technological complexity. The derogatory characterization stuck for many years until researchers realized just how much those ancient “peoples” had accomplished, such as intentional burial of their dead

Anatomy

Populations in Western Europe lived at higher latitudes, and the Classic Neanderthals exhibited cold adaptations that conform to Bergmann’s and Allen’s Rules. Bergmann’s Rule states that asyou move away from the equator, mass increases relative to surface area in order to conserve heat, as heat loss is a function of surface area. Allen’s Rule pertains to limb or extremity length, so that organisms in colder environments exhibit shorter appendages.

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): Neanderthal skeleton. “Neanderthalensis” by Claire Houck is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0.

Thus in equatorial Africa, where people have adapted over the long term to hot and dry conditions, body morphology is long and gracile versus the short, stocky morphology of Arctic peoples. In addition to their stocky bodies, short appendages, and barrel chests, Neanderthals had facial adaptations to the cold.

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Neanderthal cranial anatomy. “Neanderthal cranial anatomy” by Jason Potter is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.5.

Additional skull characteristics seen in both cold-adapted and eastern Neanderthals were large, smoothly rolled brow ridges above large, round, widely spaced orbits; “swept back” zygomatics; some unique inner ear characteristics; and, in the occipital region, an occipital bun andsuprainiac fossae (two small depressions located above inion, or the external occipital protuberance; see Figure for general area).

While their skulls were longer and lower than those of AMH (see Figure), their absolute cranial capacity exceeded even that of modern humans. In accordance with Bergmann’s Rule, a larger brain, while energetically costly in terms of calories, is more conservative from a heat generation and retention perspective. While the Neanderthal brain was larger, the frontal and parietal lobes (involved with higher thought processes) of AMH were expanded relative to those of Neanderthals. This may have given AMH an advantage in Ice Age Europe.

Postcranially, Neanderthals have been described as a cross between a marathon runner (in terms of their endurance) and a wrestler. They were built for chasing down and killing prey. Their upper body was heavily muscled.

Culture/ Behavior

Because of the seasonality, plant foods would primarily have been available during warmer months. European Neanderthals ate a high proportion of meat, with reindeer and mammoth making up the majority of the diet, based upon faunal assemblages and isotopic analyses, respectively. However, dietary composition varied by region and did include plant material. Horses, bovids, and goats inhabited plains whereas at higher elevations, mountain sheep and ibex dominated. At the site of Shanidar, Iraq, faunal remains included goat, sheep, bovid, pig, tortoise, bear, deer, fox, marten, and gerbil bones. At the same site, there is evidence of plant consumption and cooking. 

While we know that Neanderthals used fire, as evidenced by hearths at their sites, and likely ate plants when they were available, it is valuable to finally have supporting evidence. SinceShanidar is south of most of Europe and thus more temperate, it is likely that the Neanderthals had greater access to such resources.

While debate has raged for some time over whether Neanderthals practiced cannibalism, fossil material, especially from the French site of Moula-Guercy, provides convincing evidence that at least some groups did eat their own. Neanderthal bones at the site exhibit the same signs of processing as animal bones. Bones were disarticulated and hammered open for marrow, and exhibit cut marks from muscle removal.

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\): Mousterian flint artifacts. “Pointe levellois Beuzeville MHNT PRE.2009.0.203.2” by Didier Descouens is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.

It is interesting how abhorrent cannibalism is to us. We identify with the Neanderthals and may feel disappointed that they practiced cannibalism. While it is difficult to say why they ate one another, there is evidence of dietary stress in the form of enamel hypoplasia at some sites, such as Krapina, Croatia. Thus some groups suffered periodic food shortages that resulted in faulty enamel deposition in developing children. If people are starving and there is a dead body available, historic accounts show that they will eat it. 

Tools

Neanderthal culture falls within the period termed the Middle Paleolithic, i.e. the middle portion of the Old Stone Age. The Neanderthal tool tradition is termed the Mousterian Industry (see Figures), after the Le Moustier  site in France. Some of the tools were denticulate, meaning that they were saw-toothed. Like H. heidelbergensis, they made compound tools by hafting stone implements onto handles and shafts. While they used spears, they did not throw the spears because they lived in a wooded environment. Instead, they stalked large prey and ambushed the animal, killing it by stabbing it up close with the hafted spears.

While H. naledi  and H. heidelbergensis  deposited their dead in deep caves, the Neanderthals were the first species known to bury their dead in individual graves. Bodies are often found in a flexed position. There is very little evidence of ritual associated with Neanderthal burials. It appears that they dug a hole, folded the body into the hole, hence the flexed position, and possibly threw some other things in with it.

Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): The Homo neanderthalensis used tools and may have worn clothing.

Items are often interpreted as having some significance, but they are usually limited to animal bones and broken tools. However, at the site of Teshik Tash, Uzbekistan, a nine-year-old boy was buried with five sets of wild goat horns that may have adorned his body. While some have suggested that he was an AMH, if he was Neanderthal it appears to have been a ritualized burial.

The Shanidar site (Iraq) has always been the most romantic from my perspective. It is a cave site that experienced periodic cave-ins and has yielded the remains of several interesting individuals, some of which were intentionally buried. Shanidar 1 was an adult male. While ultimately the victim of a cave-in, he survived one or more earlier traumatic events in his life.

He is thought to have been partially blind due to a head injury that involved one of his eyes. He was missing the end of one of his forearms and thus the hand as well. He suffered a leg injury that resulted in a permanent limp, and some of his teeth were completely worn down. The interesting question is, how did he survive? The oft-cited response is that his group mates helped him in life. He is thus heralded as another case of pre-human altruism or at least kin selection, if the care was provided by his relatives.

Speech

The debate as to whether the Neanderthals could speak has raged for decades. For many years, experts thought that their larynx was situated too high in their throats to have allowed for speech.

The discovery of a Neanderthal hyoid bone at the Kebara site in Israel led many to accept their ability to talk, since its morphology was similar to our own. The hyoid is an important attachment site for the ligaments and cartilages of the larynx and for some extrinsic muscles of the tongue (i.e., geniohyoid, hyoglossus).

The most telling evidence in support of Neanderthal speech, in addition to all of my previous arguments, is the presence of the FOX P2 gene in their genome. We also possess the gene, and it plays an important role in the acquisition of language. The Neanderthal voice would have been high-pitched, nasally and very loud.

Contributors and Attributions

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