We have covered what power is and where it comes from...but what does power do? In this section, we will discuss the ways in which power can manifest in our lives. We will discuss manifestations of power that apply to macro, mezzo, and micro contexts. Also we will discuss how power influences our communication practices and our perceptions.
Identify how power manifests in communication and relationships across macro, mezzo, and micro contexts.
Describe characteristics of higher power interactions, including defining others, delegating, communication inhibition, and annexing space.
Explain how power can be used through dominance, prevention, and empowerment and recognize the different effects of each manifestation.
Identify communication patterns associated with lower power positions, including excessive politeness, hedging, disclaimers, and nonverbal adaptations.
Analyze how individuals and groups in lower power positions use strategies such as defiance, resistance, alliances, and self-empowerment to navigate power dynamics.
Explain standpoint theory and how positionality influences perception, communication, and understanding of social power structures.
High Power Position
Being in a higher power position on an interpersonal level has several effects on the ways in which we interact with others. In general terms, our positions of power create a situation or a context in which we are less concerned with consequences which allows us to be freer or more cavalier in our choices of interaction. This may result in:
Characteristics of Higher Power Interactions
Defining others: we may use our language to ascribe labels unto others. An avowed identity is one that comes from within as self-proclamation, but an ascribed identity is one that is given down from above from others. If we are in a position of power, we can ascribe identities to others.
Delegating and ordering: there may be subtle language shifts based on power dynamics. In a lower-power position, we politely ask for favors. In a higher power position, we simply demand an action.
Communication Inhibition: Whether through virtue of our authority, status, or position of power, or through our communication actions, a person in power may have a chilling effect on those around us inhibiting their comfort or ability to communicate freely.
Annexing Space: nonverbally, those who are in positions of power often feel entitled to as much space as they want or need, or at the very least inconsiderate or perhaps simply oblivious to the spacial needs of those around them.
Broadly speaking, power can manifest in three different ways:
Dominance is the most overt and explicit presence of power, and the reason that power often gets a bad reputation. Power is often used to deny others rights and freedoms, or to put and keep others down in any way. This is often seen as an abuse of power as it used to harm others in some way.
This may be an important time to introduce the idea of hegemony, which is the process by which the systems of power are normalized in such a way that those who are at the top of these systems of power stay at the top. For example, in a patriarchal society characteristics of masculinity are seen as more desirable and more valuable, and so men who exhibit these characteristics are seen as leaders and put into positions of power, and with their positions of power they maintain and reinforce messages that masculine characteristics are valuable and worthy and so men are put into positions of leadership, and on and on we go through this cycle. Hegemonic systems are a system of dominance, but often one that goes unquestioned as the normal status quo.
Although dominance is the most obvious and explicit demonstration of power (and why power has such a bad reputation) it is far from the only demonstration of power. Power can also manifest through prevention, which is the use of power to fight back against domination. The power that would make one person a bully (dominance) is the same power that would make someone stand up to the bully (prevention). Dominance is a proactive manifestation of power; prevention is a reactive manifestation of power.
We mentioned earlier that being in a higher power position can result in communication patterns such as defining and delegating, and these descriptions often come with a negative connotation: that we will define others in ways they do not want, or delegate tasks and responsibilities that demean or demoralize others. However, this is not an inevitable or necessary manifestation of power. We could potentially use power to empower others. We could define others in supportive and uplifting ways, bestowing titles and descriptions unto them that raise their self-confidence and esteem. We could use our power to encourage others in tasks that would raise their status, like a mentor taking time to train someone in a specialized skill that will advance their role and prospects. It is possible for us to use our power to empower others.
Low Power Position
Being in a lower power position influences our interactions and communication in similar but inverted ways. Communication from a lower power position may result in:
Excessive politeness: in deference to the power of the other person, in a lower power position we often lean on politeness to a great degree, often adding intensifiers like "I am so sorry" and "thank you very much."
Hedging:exemplifying a lack of empowerment and confidence and assertiveness in the face of a more powerful person, we might add language such as "sometimes" or sort of" or "might" or "maybe." This language always leaves the door open for the more powerful person to consider and disagree or correct us.
Disclaimers and tag questions: Similar to hedging, this language adds a soft uncertainty to either the beginning of our statement or the end. A disclaimer might be starting a sentence with "haven't fully thought this through, no big deal, might be silly, but I was just kind of thinking..." and a tag question ends a sentence with a question such as "don't you think?" Both have the effect of downplaying our assertiveness and certainty.
Nonverbally, we may make an effort to make our bodies smaller to take up less space, or, depending on the cultural context, avoid prolonged eye contact with the more powerful person.
Although being in a lower power position may influence the ways in which we interact with others, it is important to remember that we never fully powerless. Everyone has access to some sources of power to some extent. Furthermore, power is dynamic so if we are in a lower power position it is entirely possible that the power will shift back in our favor. There are many ways that folks in a lower power position can use the power they have to assert themselves:
There is of course defiance, which is to overtly and explicitly defy the mandates of the powerful. This is the simplest and most straightforward to understand, but perhaps the most challenging to execute. Defiance can be extremely risky, and those in the lower power position may be in a very precarious situation and the risk of defiance may be extreme.
If the risk of defiance is too great, folk sin a lower power position can use resistance, which is to comply with the mandates of the powerful but in a way that is taxing and subversive. If defiance is to say "no!" with strength and clarity, resistance is to say "yes" but make it as painful and obnoxious a "yes" as possible. Resistance can be seen in places both small and large. Consider a child who doesn't want to go to school, but their parent of course is saying they must. When the parent tells the child to put their shoes on to go to school, the child might say yes, but then spend time looking for their shoes, and then when they find the shoes decide their the wrong ones, and then have a hard time undoing the knot in the laces, and then complaining that their shoes are uncomfortable, etc. On a larger scale, we have seen groups and entities use judiciary to bring lawsuits to more powerful groups. The lawsuits may not directly stop the actions of the more powerful party, but it makes their actions more onerous and taxing to execute, making the lawsuit a reliable form of resistance.
Also, throughout history we have seen countless examples of folks in a lower-power position use alliances to protect themselves and assert themselves in the face of a more powerful group. Each individual actor in a lower-power position may be in a precarious position of great risk, but there may be strength in collective action. Labor unions use alliance as a tactic when they strike for their cause: one person may get fired from their job and risk poverty if they speak out, but the institution cannot fire everybody because then there is nobody to operate the business. With collective action there is some protection from the lower-power position.
One final manifestation of power from a low-power position is self-empowerment. This harkens back to our discussion of cultural capital: if we do not currently have the attributes or characteristics that would result in the cultural capital to rise to a position of power, then why not create those attributes and characteristics ourselves? On the one hand, this falls right in line with dominant U.S. American cultural ideals of "rugged individualism" and the "self-made man": this idea that with enough hard work and perseverance that anyone can be anything. There have been countless popular Hollywood films made about the underdogs overcoming adversity to be champions through sheer grit and determination. This is certainly a possibility for us, however there is a reason we make movies around these stories: it's rare. The reason someone may not have the cultural capital to be in a powerful position is that they do not have the resources to obtain that cultural capital. For example, we currently have an economic system in which having a college degree can create possibilities for economic advancement. However, obtaining that college degree can be expensive. The folks who would need the benefit do not have the resources to obtain the benefit. These cycle can be devastatingly challenging to overcome. Self-empowerment is certainly possible, but to simply go it alone can be daunting and rigorous.
Standpoint
The connection between power and perception is what is known as standpoint, but we have to walk through a couple of elements in order to fully understand it. Recall from our previous chapter on identity the concept of intersectionality:we always exist in a unique combination of all our identities simultaneously. This means that we are never completely powerful nor are we completely powerless, but we are always experiencing the world from a unique and complex combination of sources of power and lack of power. Each identity we hold occupies a cultural location, and the unique combination of these cultural locations creates what is known as a positionality. Positionalities are where we stand in relation to various categories or elements of difference, such as race, economic background, or ability. Our positiionalities describe our relative status of power to one another.
Standpoint theory is a theory that contends that we stand in relation to one another within systems of power, and this positionality influences the ways in which we perceive the world. A great metaphor for standpoint theory is to imagine two people exploring a city: one walking and taking public transit through the streets and the other with an aerial view on a helicopter tour. They are both seeing the same city of course, but understanding it very differently depending on their perspective. However, the person walking and taking public transit would presumably be in a lower power position, as chartering a helicopter would take a tremendous amount of resources. To extend this metaphor even further, standpoint theory holds that those in a lower power position are better suited to see and understand more of the power dynamic than those in the higher power position. In the metaphor, the person walking through the street will have a much more nuanced and detailed understanding of the city and the people who live there than the person in the helicopter. Standpoint theory explains why people of color are much more likely to see and understand instances of racism than white people, why queer folks may see homophobia and transphobia more clearly, why women may see sexism where men don't, etc. Our standpoint is build upon our positions of relative power, and our standpoint influences the way we communicate into the world and understand the messages in it.
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