1.6: Introduction to Developmental Theories - Psychodynamic

We'll begin our exploration of theories of development with two influential men who both provide us with interesting, but very different, ways of looking at how our unconscious impulses and desires impact development. You have probably heard of our first influencer, none other that Freud - who provided us with Psychosexual Stages. In stark contrast to Freud's focus on internal impulses, Erikson provided us with Psychosocial Stages.

Freud

We begin with a very brief overview of the often controversial figure, Sigmund Freud. Freud has been a very influential figure in the area of development; his view of development and psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the 1950s. His assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in which parents/caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on children’s emotional states have guided parents/caregivers, educators, clinicians, and policy-makers for many years. We have only recently begun to recognize that early childhood experiences do not always result in certain personality traits or emotional states. There is a growing body of literature addressing resiliency in children who come from harsh backgrounds and yet, develop without damaging emotional scars (O’Grady and Metz, 1987). Freud has stimulated an enormous amount of research and generated many ideas. Agreeing with Freud’s theory in its entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of development.

Theory of the Mind

Freud believed that most of our mental processes, motivations and desires are outside of our awareness. Our consciousness, that of which we are aware, represents only the tip of the iceberg that comprises our mental state. The preconscious represents that which can easily be called into the conscious mind. During development, our motivations and desires are gradually pushed into the unconscious because raw desires are often unacceptable in society.

Theory of the Self

According to Freud's theory: As adults, our personality or self consists of three main parts: the id, the ego and the superego. The id is the seat of drives and instincts, whereas the ego represents the logical, reality-oriented part of the mind, and the superego is basically your conscience—the moral guidelines, rules, and prohibitions that guide your behavior. The superego is the part of the self that develops as we learn the rules, standards, and values of society. This part of the self takes into account the moral guidelines that are a part of our culture. If a person violates the superego, they feel guilty. The superego is useful but can be too strong; in this case, a person might feel overly anxious and guilty about circumstances over which they had no control. Such a person may experience high levels of stress and inhibition that keeps them from living well. The id is inborn, but the ego and superego develop during the course of our early interactions with others. These interactions occur against a backdrop of learning to resolve early biological and social challenges and play a key role in our development. According to Freud, you acquire these through your family/caregivers and through the culture in which you were raised.

Next, we have defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms emerge to help a person distort reality so that the truth is less painful. Defense mechanisms include repression which means to push the painful thoughts out of consciousness (in other words, think about something else). Denial is basically not accepting the truth or lying to the self. Thoughts such as “it won’t happen to me” or “you’re not leaving” or “I don’t have a problem with alcohol” are examples. Regression refers to going back to a time when the world felt like a safer place, perhaps reverting to one’s childhood. An example might be acting (or maybe talking) like a child to get needs met. This is less common than the first two defense mechanisms. Sublimation involves transforming unacceptable urges into more socially acceptable behaviors, often to an extreme. For example, a teenager who experiences strong sexual urges in a way they do not want to express, uses excessive gym workouts to redirect those urges into more socially acceptable behavior. Displacement involves taking out frustrations on to a safer target (example, snapping at your partner because you feel frustrated that your boss was grumpy to you at work today). Projection is a defense mechanism in which a person attributes their unacceptable thoughts or actions onto others. Example: Someone stating, "YOU made me yell at you because you rolled your eyes at me". Another example: If someone is frightened, for example, they accuse someone else of being afraid. Finally, reaction formation is a defense mechanism in which a person outwardly opposes something they inwardly desire, but that they find unacceptable. An example of this might be homophobia or a strong hatred and fear of the LGBTQ community. This is a partial listing of defense mechanisms suggested by Freud. If the ego is strong, the individual is realistic and accepting of reality and remains more logical, objective, and reasonable. Building ego strength is a major goal of psychoanalysis (Freudian psychotherapy). So for Freud, having a big ego is a good thing because it does not refer to being arrogant (as is part of today's terminology), it refers to being able to accept reality.

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

Freud's most direct contribution to the study of development is his psychosexual stages. At any of these stages, the child might become “stuck” or fixated if a caregiver either overly indulges or neglects the child’s needs. A fixated adult will continue to try and resolve this later in life. Examples of fixation are given after the presentation of each stage.

For about the first year of life, the infant is in the oral stage of psychosexual development. The infant meets needs primarily through oral gratification. A baby wishes to suck or chew on any object that comes close to the mouth. Babies explore the world through the mouth and find comfort and stimulation as well. Psychologically, the infant is all Id. The infant seeks immediate gratification of needs such as comfort, warmth, food, and stimulation. If the caregiver meets oral needs consistently, the child will move away from this stage and progress further. However, if the caregiver is inconsistent or neglectful, the person may stay stuck in the oral stage. As an adult, the person might not feel good unless involved in some oral activity such as eating, drinking, smoking, nail-biting, or compulsive talking. These actions bring comfort and security when the person feels insecure, afraid, or bored.

During the anal stage which coincides with toddler-hood or mobility and potty-training, the child is taught that some urges must be contained and some actions postponed. There are rules about certain functions and when and where they are to be carried out. The child is learning a sense of self-control. The ego is being developed. If the caregiver is extremely controlling about potty training (stands over the child waiting for the smallest indication that the child might need to go to the potty and immediately scoops the child up and places him on the potty chair, for example), the child may grow up fearing losing control. He may becoming fixated in this stage or “anal retentive”-fearful of letting go. Such a person might be extremely neat and clean, organized, reliable, and controlling of others. If the caregiver neglects to teach the child to control urges, he may grow up to be “anal expulsive” or an adult who is messy, irresponsible, and disorganized.

The phallic stage occurs during the preschool years (ages 3-5) when the child has a new biological challenge to face. Freud believed that the child becomes sexually attracted to his or her opposite sexed parent. Boys experience the “Oedipal Complex” in which they become sexually attracted to their mothers but realize that Father is in the way. He is much more powerful. For a while, the boy fears that if he pursues his mother, father may castrate him (castration anxiety). So rather than risking losing his penis, he gives up his affections for his mother and instead learns to become more like his father, imitating his actions and mannerisms and thereby learns the role of males in his society. From this experience, the boy learns a sense of masculinity. He also learns what society thinks he should do and experiences guilt if he does not comply. In this way, the superego develops. If he does not resolve this successfully, he may become a “phallic male” or a man who constantly tries to prove his masculinity (about which he is insecure) by seducing women and beating up men! A little girl experiences the “Electra Complex” in which she develops an attraction for her father but realizes that she cannot compete with mother and so gives up that affection and learns to become more like her mother. This is not without some regret, however. Freud believed that the girl feels inferior because she does not have a penis (experiences “penis envy”). But she must resign herself to the fact that she is female and will just have to learn her inferior role in society as a female. However, if she does not resolve this conflict successfully, she may have a weak sense of femininity and grow up to be a “castrating female” who tries to compete with men in the workplace or in other areas of life.

During middle childhood (6-11), the child enters the latent stage focusing his or her attention outside the family and toward friendships. The biological drives are temporarily quieted (latent) and the child can direct attention to a larger world of friends. If the child is able to make friends, he or she will gain a sense of confidence. If not, the child may continue to be a loner or shy away from others, even as an adult.

The final stage of psychosexual development is referred to as the genital stage. From adolescence throughout adulthood a person is preoccupied with sex and reproduction. The adolescent experiences rising hormone levels and the sex drive and hunger drives become very strong. Ideally, the adolescent will rely on the ego to help think logically through these urges without taking actions that might be damaging. An adolescent might learn to redirect their sexual urges into safer activity such as running, for example. Quieting the Id with the Superego can lead to feeling overly self-conscious and guilty about these urges. Hopefully, it is the ego that is strengthened during this stage and the adolescent uses reason to manage urges.

Freud's Psychosexual Stages - Summarized (All ages are approximated)

Ages	Life Stage	Psychosexual Stage	Characteristics
0–1	Infancy	Oral	Needs met through putting things in the mouth - eating, sucking on a pacifier, exploring by mouthing
1–3	Toddler-hood	Anal	Coincides with "terrible two's" and the infant's desire to be in control - of choices and potty-training
3–6	Early Childhood	Phallic	Development of gender identity through identification with same-sex parent
6-11	Middle Childhood	Latency	Focus on friendships
11-	Adolescence	Genital	Adolescent and adult focus on sex and reproduction

Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory

Freud’s theory has been heavily criticized for several reasons. Freud focuses on the darker side of human nature and suggests that much of what determines our actions is unknown to us. So why do we study Freud? As mentioned above, despite the criticisms, Freud’s assumptions about the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our psychological selves have found their way into child development, education, and parenting/caregiver practices. Freud’s theory has heuristic value in providing a framework from which elaborate and modified subsequent theories of development have formed. Many later theories were challenges to Freud’s views.

Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

Erik Erikson (1902–1994) another stage theorist, took Freud’s theory and modified it as psychosocial theory. Erikson’s psychosocial development theory emphasizes the social nature of our development. While Freud believed that personality is shaped only in childhood, Erikson proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan. Erikson suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego identity.

Erikson proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.

According to Erikson (1963), trust is the basis of our development during infancy (birth to 12 months). Therefore, the primary task of this stage is trust versus mistrust. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs consistently can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable and scary.

As toddlers (about age 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on the environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy versus shame and doubt, by working to establish independence. This is the “me do it” stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence (one idea to help toddlers when getting dressed, is to select 2-4 outfits that would be appropriate and let them choose which they prefer. Having said that, if you know a toddler, you may not be surprised when they reject ALL of the choices you have selected. This is a gentle reminder to laugh when this happens! After all, they are like little researchers just trying to figure out the world around them and are more often than not, pretty hilarious!). If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame throughout her entire life (not to worry too much though...there are many ways to heal this, including sessions with a skilled therapist and classes like this one to help you understand your own development and to empower you to grow beyond anything that hinders you, psychologically).

Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative versus guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Those who do will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled—may develop long-term feelings of guilt whenever they make a decision. Do you know anyone like that? Erikson would look to his theory to help explain it. Can you see how over-controlling parents/caregivers might stifle a child’s initiative?

During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry versus inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves to their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, creative endeavors, sports, social activities, and family life, or risk feeling inferior and inadequate when they don’t measure up (even if it's only in their imagination that they don't "measure up" to others). What are some things parents/caregivers and educators can do to help children develop a sense of competence and a belief in themselves and their abilities?

In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity versus role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people’s perspectives. What happens to apathetic adolescents, who do not make a conscious search for identity, or those who are pressured to conform to their parents and caregivers ideas for the future? These teens will have a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They are unsure of their identity and confused about the future.

People in emerging and early adulthood (18ish through 30s) are concerned with intimacy versus isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are more ready to share our life with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before developing healthy intimate relationships with others. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.

When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity versus stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and contributing to the development of others, through activities such as volunteering, mentoring others, or perhaps raising children. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation, having little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement. people in stagnation report higher levels of depression than those experiencing generativity.

From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called ego integrity versus despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. They hav resolved regrets and have understood how each life experience had lead to help them grow. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair. Below is a summary of the stages of Erikson’s theory.

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages (All ages are approximated)

Age	Life Stage	Psychosocial Stage (Task)	Characteristics
0–1	Infancy	Trust vs. Mistrust	Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met consistently.
1–3	Toddler-hood	Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt	Develop a sense of independence in many tasks.
3–6	Early Childhood	Initiative vs. Guilt	Take initiative on some activities—may develop guilt when underguided/overguided by caregivers.
7–11	Middle Childhood	Industry vs. Inferiority	Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not.
12–18	Adolescence	Identity vs. Role Confusion	Experiment with and develop identity and roles.
19–30s	Early/Emerging Adulthood	Intimacy vs. Isolation	Establish intimacy and relationships with others.
40–64	Middle Adulthood	Generativity vs. Stagnation	Contribute to society and others.
65–	Late Adulthood	Integrity vs. Despair	Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions.

These eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional, social, and psychological development during the lifespan. Erikson’s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is a prerequisite for the next crisis of development. His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all. For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices.

Photo by Luis Quero from Pexels

Concept Check

Query \(\PageIndex{1}\)

This page last updated July 31, 2022.