Skip to main content
Social Sci LibreTexts

References for Poverty and Economic Inequality

  • Page ID
    288692
  • \( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

    \( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\dsum}{\displaystyle\sum\limits} \)

    \( \newcommand{\dint}{\displaystyle\int\limits} \)

    \( \newcommand{\dlim}{\displaystyle\lim\limits} \)

    \( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

    ( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

    \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

    \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)

    \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

    \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

    \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

    \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}}      % arrow\)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}}      % arrow\)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)

    \( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

    \(\newcommand{\longvect}{\overrightarrow}\)

    \( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

    \(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)

    Addy, Sophia, and Vanessa R. Wright. 2012. Basic Facts About Low-Income Children, 2010. New York, NY: National Center for Children in Poverty.

    Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation (ASPE). 2025. Poverty Guidelines. Retrieved from https://aspe.hhs.gov/topics/poverty-economic-mobility/poverty-guidelines.

    Banerjee, Abhijit V., and Esther Duflo. 2011. Poor Economics: A Radical Rethinking of the Way to Fight Global Poverty. New York, NY: PublicAffairs.

    Banfield, Edward C. 1974. The Unheavenly City Revisited. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company.

    Barash, David. 2012. “The Wanton Wages of Income Inequality.” The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from http://chronicle.com/blogs/brainstorm/the-wages-of-inequality/43020?sid=pm&utm_source=pm&utm_medium=en.

    Barkan, Steven E., and Lynne L. Snowden. 2008. Collective Violence. Cornwall-on-Hudson, NY: Sloan.

    Barron, Kyle, Edward Kung, and Davide Proserpio. 2020. “The Effect of Home-Sharing on House Prices and Rents: Evidence from Airbnb.” SSRN Scholarly Paper. Rochester, NY.

    Bauer, Lauren, Emily Moss, and Jay Shambaugh. 2019. “Who Was Poor in the US in 2018?” Brookings Institute. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/articles/who-was-poor-in-the-u-s-in-2018/.

    Bennett, Drake. 2009. “Small Change.” The Boston Globe, September 20. Retrieved from http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/id...fight_poverty/.

    Blitstein, Ryan. 2009. “Weathering the Storm.” Miller-McCune 2(July–August):48–57.

    Block, Fred, Anna C. Korteweg, and Kerry Woodward. 2006. “The Compassion Gap in American Poverty Policy.” Contexts 5(2):14–20.

    Bonomi, Amy E., Britton Trabert, Melissa L. Anderson, Mary A. Kernic, and Victoria L. Holt. 2014. “Intimate Partner Violence and Neighborhood Income: A Longitudinal Analysis.” Violence Against Women 20(1):42–58.

    Bradley, Cynthia, and Donald J. Cole. 2002. “Causal Attributions and the Significance of Self-Efficacy in Predicting Solutions to Poverty.” Sociological Focus 35:381–396.

    Brady, David. 2009. Rich Democracies, Poor People: How Politics Explain Poverty. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Cancian, Maria, and Sheldon H. Danziger. 2009. Changing Poverty, Changing Policies. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.

    Cohen, Jessica, and William Easterly, eds. 2009. What Works in Development? Thinking Big and Thinking Small. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.

    Confessore, Nicholas, David Kocieniewski, and Ashley Parker. 2011. “Romney Shares Some Tax Data; Critics Pounce.” New York Times, January 18, p. A1.

    Congressional Budget Office (CBO). 2011. Trends in the Distribution of Household Income Between 1979 and 2007. Retrieved from www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/124xx/doc12485/WebSummary.pdf.

    Congressional Budget Office (CBO). 2024. Trends in the Distribution of Family Wealth, 1989 to 2022. Retrieved from https://www.cbo.gov/publication/60807.

    Davis, Kingsley and Wilbert E. Moore. 1945. “Some Principles of Stratification.” American Sociological Review 10(2): 242-249.

    Davidson, T. C. 2009. “Attributions for Poverty among College Students: The Impact of Service-Learning and Religiosity.” College Student Journal 43:136–144.

    DeNavas-Walt, Carmen, Bernadette D. Proctor, and Jessica C. Smith. 2011. Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2010 (Current Population Reports, P60-239). Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau.

    DeParle, Jason. 2012. “Harder for Americans to Rise from Lower Rungs.” New York Times, January 5, p. A1.

    DeParle, Jason, Robert Gebeloff, and Sabrina Tavernise. 2011. “Bleak Portrait of Poverty Is Off the Mark, Experts Say.” New York Times, November 4, p. A1.

    Desmond, Matthew. 2023. Poverty, by America. New York: Crown.

    DiAngelo, Robin. 2021. Nice Racism: How Progressive White People Perpetuate Racial Harm. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.

    Duncan, Greg J., and Harry J. Holzer. 2023. “Policies That Reduce Intergenerational Poverty.” Brookings Institute. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/articles/policies-that-reduce-intergenerational-poverty/?utm_source=chatgpt.com.

    Duncan, Greg J., and Katherine Magnuson. 2011. “The Long Reach of Early Childhood Poverty.” Pathways: A Magazine on Poverty, Inequality, and Social Policy, Winter:22–27.

    Economist, The. 2010. “A Better Mattress.” The Economist 394(8673):75–76.

    Ehrenreich, Barbara. 2012. Nickel and Dimed: On (Not) Getting By in America. New York: Metropolitan Books.

    Evans, Gary W., Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, and Pamela K. Klebanov. 2011. “Stressing Out the Poor: Chronic Physiological Stress and the Income-Achievement Gap.” Pathways: A Magazine on Poverty, Inequality, and Social Policy, Winter:16–21.

    Feldberg, Michael. 1980. The Turbulent Era: Riot and Disorder in Jacksonian America. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Ferguson, H. Bruce, Stephen Bovaird, and Michael P. Mueller. 2007. “The Impact of Poverty on Educational Outcomes for Children.” Paediatrics and Child Health 12(8):701–706.

    Gans, Herbert J. 1972. “The Positive Functions of Poverty.” The American Journal of Sociology 78(2.): 275-289.

    Global Education Project. n.d. “Map of Life Expectancy of People.” Retrieved from https://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/human-conditions.php.

    Grusky, David, and Christopher Wimer, eds. 2011. “Editors’ Note.” Pathways: A Magazine on Poverty, Inequality, and Social Policy, Winter:2.

    Hacker, Jacob S., and Paul Pierson. 2011. Winner-Take-All Politics: How Washington Made the Rich Richer—And Turned Its Back on the Middle Class. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.

    Hair, Nicole L., Jamie L. Hanson, Barbara L. Wolfe, and Seth D. Pollak. 2015. “Association of Child Poverty, Brain Development, and Academic Achievement.” JAMA Pediatrics 169(9):822–829.

    Hanlon, Joseph, Armando Barrientos, and David Hulme. 2010. Just Give Money to the Poor: The Development Revolution from the Global South. Sterling, VA: Kumarian Press.

    Hill Collins, Patricia. 2000. Black Feminist Thought. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Holland, Joshua. 2011. The Fifteen Biggest Lies About the Economy: And Everything Else the Right Doesn't Want You to Know About Taxes, Jobs, and Corporate America. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Hungerford, Thomas L. 2011. Changes in the Distribution of Income Among Tax Filers Between 1996 and 2006: The Role of Labor Income, Capital Income, and Tax Policy. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.

    Internal Revenue Service (IRS). 2025. Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC). Retrieved from https://www.irs.gov/credits-deductions/individuals/earned-income-tax-credit-eitc.

    Iceland, John. 2006. Poverty in America: A Handbook. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

    Iceland, John, Claire Kovach, and John Creamer. 2021. “Poverty and the Incidence of Material Hardship, Revisited.” Social Science Quarterly 102(1):585–617.

    Karney, Benjamin R., Jeffrey B. Wenger, Michael A. Zaber, and Thomas N. Bradbury. 2022. “State Minimum Wage Increases Delay Marriage and Reduce Divorce Among Low-Wage Households.” Journal of Marriage and Family 84(4):1196–1207.

    Karlan, Dean, and Jacob Appel. 2011. More Than Good Intentions: How a New Economics Is Helping to Solve Global Poverty. New York, NY: Dutton.

    Kent, Ana Hernández. 2025. The State of U.S. Household Wealth. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. Retrieved from https://www.stlouisfed.org/community-development/publications/the-state-of-us-household-wealth.

    Kerbo, H. R. 2009. Social Stratification and Inequality. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

    King, Brittany. 2024. Monthly and Episodic Poverty: 2022. U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved from https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/2024/demo/p70br-196.pdf.

    Kocieniewski, David. 2011. “Biggest Public Firms Paid Little U.S. Tax, Study Says.” New York Times, November 3, B1.

    Krueger, Alan B. 2012. The Rise and Consequences of Inequality in the United States. Retrieved from http://www.americanprogress.org/events/2012/01/pdf/krueger.pdf.

    Krugman, Paul. 2006. “Helping the Poor, the British Way.” New York Times, December 25, p. A25.

    Krugman, Paul. 2012. “Taxes at the Top.” New York Times, January 20, p. A27.

    Kristoff, Nicholas D., and Sheryl WuDunn. 2010. Half the Sky: Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide. New York, NY: Vintage Books.

    Lee, Dayne. 2016. “How Airbnb Short-Term Rentals Exacerbate Los Angeles’s Affordable Housing Crisis: Analysis and Policy Recommendations.” Harvard Law & Policy Review 10(1).

    Lee, Barrett, Kimberly A. Tyler, and James D. Wright. 2010. “The New Homelessness Revisited.” Annual Review of Sociology 36:501–521.

    Leonhardt, David. 2012. “Why Taxes Aren’t as High as They Seem.” New York Times, January 20, p. A15.

    Lever, Janet. 1978. “Sex Differences in the Complexity of Children’s Play and Games.” American Sociological Review 43:471–483.

    Lewis, Oscar. 1966. “The Culture of Poverty.” Scientific American 215(4):19–25.

    Liebow, Elliot. 1993. Tell Them Who I Am: The Lives of Homeless Women. New York, NY: Free Press.

    Lin, Ann Chih, and David R. Harris, eds. 2008. The Colors of Poverty: Why Racial and Ethnic Disparities Persist. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

    Looney, Adam, and Nicholas Turner. 2018. “Work and Opportunity Before and After Incarceration.” Brookings Institute. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/articles/work-and-opportunity-before-and-after-incarceration/.

    Marx, K., & Engels, F. 1947. The German Ideology. New York, NY: International Publishers.

    Mills, C. Wright. 1956. The Power Elite. New York, NY: Oxford Press.

    Mishel, Lawrence, Jared Bernstein, and Heidi Shierholz. 2009. The State of Working America 2008/2009. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press.

    Mink, Gwendolyn. 2008. “TANF Reauthorization and Opportunity to Invest in America’s Future.” Paper presented to the ADA Economic Policy Committee. Retrieved July 25, 2011, from http://www.adaction.org/pages/issues/all-policy-resolutions/social-amp-domestic/issues-brief-no.-13-welfare-reform.php.

    Mode, Nicolle A., Michele K. Evans, and Alan B. Zonderman. 2016. “Race, Neighborhood Economic Status, Income Inequality and Mortality.” PLoS ONE 11(5).

    Murray, Charles. 2012. Coming Apart: The State of White America, 1960–2010. New York: Crown Forum.

    Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2025. Poverty Rate. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/en/data/indicators/poverty-rate.html?oecdcontrol-0ad85c6bab-var1=GBR%7CUSA%7CFRA%7CDNK%7CCAN.

    Parlapiano, Alicia, Margot Sanger-Katz, Aatish Bhatia, and Josh Katz. 2025. “Everything in Trump’s Big Tax and Spending Law, and How Much It Will Cost or Save.” New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2025/06/30/upshot/senate-republican-megabill.html.

    Parrott, Sharon, and Arloc Sherman. 2008. TANF at 10: Program Results Are More Mixed Than Often Understood. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.

    Pereyra, Laura. 2011. “Half in Ten Campaign Criticizes House Republican Funding Proposal.” Washington, DC: Center for American Progress.

    Pew Research Center. 2011. “Frustration with Congress Could Hurt Republican Incumbents.” December 15. Retrieved January 19, 2012, from www.people-press.org/files/legacy-pdf/12-15-11%20Congress%20and%20Economy%20release.pdf.

    Piven, Frances Fox. 2006. Challenging Authority: How Ordinary People Change America. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

    Rabitt, Matthew P., Laura J. Hales, and Madeline Reed-Jones. 2025. Food Security in the U.S. – Key Statistics and Graphics. U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved from https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/food-security-in-the-us/key-statistics-graphics.

    Ramshaw, Emily. 2011. “Major Health Problems Linked to Poverty.” New York Times, July 10, p. A21.

    Rank, Mark R. 1994. Living on the Edge: The Realities of Welfare in America. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

    Rank, Mark R. 2011. “Rethinking American Poverty.” Contexts 10(2):16–21.

    Ratcliffe, Caroline, and Emma Kalish. 2017. Escaping Poverty: Predictors of Persistently Poor Children’s Economic Success. U.S. Partnership on Mobility from Poverty.

    Ratcliffe, Caroline, and Signe-Mary McKernan. 2010. Childhood Poverty Persistence: Facts and Consequences. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.

    Riis, Jacob. 1890. How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York. New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

    Rivera, Lauren. 2008. Laboring to Learn: Women’s Literacy and Poverty in the Post-Welfare Era. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

    Roosevelt, Eleanor. 1960. You Learn by Living: Eleven Keys for a More Fulfilling Life. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

    Russell, James W. 2011. Double Standard: Social Policy in Europe and the United States. 2nd ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

    Sadker, Myra, and David Sadker. 1994. Failing at Fairness: How America’s Schools Cheat Girls. New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s.

    Sánchez-Páramo, Carolina, and Ana Maria Munoz-Boudet. 2018. “No, 70% of the World’s Poor Aren’t Women, but That Doesn’t Mean Poverty Isn’t Sexist.” World Bank. Retrieved from https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/developmenttalk/no-70-world-s-poor-aren-t-women-doesn-t-mean-poverty-isn-t-sexist.

    Schmidt, Jeff. 2012. Disciplined Minds: A Critical Look at Salaried Professionals and the Soul-Battering System That Shapes Their Lives. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

    Schoch, Marta, Samuel Kofi Tetteh Baah, Christoph Lakner, and Jed Friedman. 2022. “Half of the Global Population Lives on Less Than US$6.85 per Person per Day.” World Bank. Retrieved from https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/developmenttalk/half-global-population-lives-less-us685-person-day.

    Sherman, Arloc. 2011. Despite Deep Recession and High Unemployment, Government Efforts—Including the Recovery Act—Prevented Poverty from Rising in 2009, New Census Data Show. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.

    Short, Kathleen. 2011. The Research Supplemental Poverty Measure: 2010 (Current Population Reports, P60-241). Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau.

    Shonkoff, Jack P. 2011. “Building a Foundation for Prosperity on the Science of Early Childhood Development.” Pathways: A Magazine on Poverty, Inequality, and Social Policy, Winter:10–14.

    Shrider, Emily A. 2024. Poverty in the United States: 2023. U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved from https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/2024/demo/p60-283.pdf.

    Singh, Gopal K. 2020. “Trends and Social Inequalities in Maternal Mortality in the United States, 1969–2018.” International Journal of Maternal and Child Health and AIDS 10(1):29–42.

    Small, Mario L., David J. Harding, and Michèle Lamont. 2010. Reconsidering Culture and Poverty. Ann Arbor, MI: National Poverty Center, University of Michigan.

    Sobotko, Jeff. 2024. “The Pressing Problem of Child Poverty and Poor Health.” Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. Retrieved from https://hsph.harvard.edu/news/the-pressing-problem-of-child-poverty-and-poor-health/?utm_source=chatgpt.com.

    Soss, Joe. 2011. “The Poverty Fight.” Contexts 10(2):18–23.

    Steffens, Lincoln. 1904. The Shame of the Cities. New York, NY: McClure, Phillips.

    Surette, Ray. 2011. Media, Crime, and Criminal Justice: Images, Realities, and Policies. 4th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

    Thorne, Barrie. 1993. Gender Play: Girls and Boys in School. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

    Toner, Kathleen. 2011. “Making Sure ‘Motel Kids’ Don’t Go Hungry.” CNN, March 24. Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/2011/LIVING/03/24/cnnheroes.serato.motel.kids/index.html.

    Trisi, Danilo, and Matt Saenz. 2021. Economic Security Programs Reduce Overall Poverty, Racial and Ethnic Inequities: Stronger Policies Needed to Make Further Progress. Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Retrieved from https://www.cbpp.org/research/poverty-and-inequality/more-than-4-in-10-children-in-renter-households-face-food-andor?utm_source=chatgpt.com.

    Tumin, M. M. 1953. “Some Principles of Stratification: A Critical Analysis.” American Sociological Review 18: 387–393.

    United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). 2025. Levels and Trends in Child Mortality. Retrieved from https://data.unicef.org/resources/levels-and-trends-in-child-mortality-2024/.

    United Nations Children’s Fund USA (UNICEF USA). 2025. Malnourished Children: How UNICEF Fights Child Hunger. Retrieved from https://www.unicefusa.org/what-unicef-does/childrens-health/nutrition/fight-childhood-malnutrition#:~:text=Over%20190%20million%20children%20under,and%20contribute%20fully%20to%20society.

    United States Census Bureau (Census). 2012. Current Population Survey: 2012 Annual Social and Economic Supplement. Washington, DC: Author.

    United States Census Bureau (Census). 2012. Poverty. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/cpstables/032011/pov/new02_100.htm.

    United States Census Bureau (Census). 2024a. Supplemental Poverty Measure. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/spm-elements.html.

    United States Census Bureau (Census). 2024b. “Figure 3. Income Distribution Measures and Percent Change Using Money Income and Equivalence-Adjusted Income.” Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/visualizations/2024/demo/p60-282/figure3.pdf.

    United States Census Bureau (Census). 2024c. Nearly Half of Renter Households Are Cost-Burdened, Proportions Differ by Race. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2024/renter-households-cost-burdened-race.html.

    United States Census Bureau (Census). 2025. National Poverty in America Awareness Month: January 2025. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/newsroom/stories/poverty-awareness-month.html.

    vanden Heuvel, Katrina. 2012. “The Occupy Effect.” The Nation, January 26. Retrieved from http://www.thenation.com/blog/165883/occupy-effect?rel=emailNation.

    Waldfogel, Jane. 2010. Britain’s War on Poverty. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.

    White, James A. 2007. “Who Are the Poor? A New Look at the American Poor.” Sociology Compass 1(1):161–174.

    Wilkinson, Richard. 1996. Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Wilkinson, Richard, and Kate Pickett. 2011. The Spirit Level: Why Greater Equality Makes Societies Stronger. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Press.

    Wilson, Bianca D.M., Lauren J.A. Bouton, M. V. Lee Badgett, and Moriah L. Macklin. 2023. LGBT Poverty in the United States: Trends at the Onset of COVID-19. UCLA Williams Institute. Retrieved from https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/publications/lgbt-poverty-us/.

    World Bank Group. 2021. “What Is Learning Poverty?” Retrieved from https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/education/brief/what-is-learning-poverty.

    World Bank Group. 2024. World Bank Open Data. Retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.ZS?end=2023&locations=XM-XN-XT&start=1988&view=chart.

    World Bank Group. 2025. The World by Income and Region. Retrieved from https://datatopics.worldbank.org/world-development-indicators/the-world-by-income-and-region.html.

    World Health Organization (WHO). 2024. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2024. Retrieved from https://openknowledge.fao.org/items/ebe19244-9611-443c-a2a6-25cec697b361.

    World Health Organization (WHO). 2025. Maternal Mortality. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/maternal-mortality.

    World Health Organization (WHO). 2010a. Children’s Environmental Health. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/ceh/risks/cehwater2/en/index.html.

    World Health Organization (WHO). 2010b. Water Sanitation and Health. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/diseases/malnutrition/en/.

    World Population Review. 2025. Poverty Rate by Country 2025. Retrieved from https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/poverty-rate-by-country.

    Wright, Vanessa R., Michelle Chau, and Yumiko Aratani. 2011. Who Are America’s Poor Children? The Official Story. New York, NY: National Center for Children in Poverty.

    Wrong, D. H. 1959. “The Functional Theory of Stratification: Some Neglected Considerations.” American Sociological Review 24: 772–782.


    References for Poverty and Economic Inequality is shared under a CC BY license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.