24.1: Second-Wave Feminism

The youth movement’s legacy was profound. While a genuine political revolution did not occur, Western culture as a whole became much more accepting of personal freedoms, especially regarding sexuality, and less puritanical and rigid in general. Likewise, the youth movement’s focus on social justice would acquire momentum in the following decades, leading to the flourishing of second-wave feminism, anti-racist movements, and a broad (though far from universal) acceptance of multiculturalism and blended cultures.

Second-Wave Feminism

In the late 1960s, second-wave feminism emerged. In 1949, Simone de Beauvoir wrote an enormous (over 1,000 pages long) book about the status of women in Western societies. Titled The Second Sex, the book argued that throughout the entire history of Western Civilization, women had been the social and cultural "other”. In other words, when men wrote about "human history" they were actually writing about the history of men, with women lurking somewhere in the background, having babies and providing domestic labor. (In English, consider phrases like “since the dawn of mankind” or “man’s relationship with nature” - the implication is that men are the species). Historically, almost every state, empire, and nation had been controlled by men, and women were legal and political non-entities.

In the postwar period, many women were dissatisfied and unhappy with social roles, overtly sexist laws, and oppressive cultural codes. To cite a few examples, it was perfectly legal for flight attendants (“stewardesses” in the parlance of the time) to be fired at the age of 30. They were considered too old to maintain the standards of attractiveness enforced by airlines. Pregnancy was also grounds for losing one's job. Unmarried women were generally paid far less than men since it was assumed they would eventually marry and quit their jobs. White women in the United States made 60% of the earnings of men doing the same work, with black women earning a mere 42%. Domestic violence remained commonplace. In short, while the first-wave feminist movement had succeeded in winning key legal battles, a vast web of sexist laws and cultural codes ensured that women were held in precisely the “secondary” position identified by Beauvoir.

Starting in the mid-1960s, the second-wave feminist movement came into existence to combat precisely these forms of both legal and cultural oppression and discrimination. The French Women's Liberation Movement emerged. Likewise, in the United States, the so-called "Women's Lib" movement gained members.

Figure 14.4.3: Members of the (American) Women’s Liberation Movement marching in 1970.

The goals of second-wave feminism were to create laws that

• expressly forbid sexual discrimination in the workplace and schools
• promote a broader cultural shift that saw women treated as true social equals of men

For second-wave feminists, the movement was not simply about women having access to the same forms of employment and equal wages as men, but about attacking the sexual objectification and double standards to which women were held. For instance, why were promiscuous women the subject of shaming and mockery, while promiscuous men were celebrated for their virility?

While the battle for sexual equality is obviously far from over, second-wave feminism did achieve many important goals. Legally, many countries adopted laws banning discrimination based on gender itself, as well as age and appearance. Laws pertaining to both sexual assault and domestic violence were often strengthened and more stringently enforced. Culturally, sexual double standards, the objectification of women, and prescribed female social roles were all called into question. Eventually, a third and fourth wave of feminism would emerge.

Third and Fourth Wave Feminism (1990-present)

Third-wave feminism began in the early 1990s. Influenced by the postmodernist movement, third-wave feminists sought to question, reclaim, and redefine the ideas, words, and media that have transmitted ideas about womanhood, gender, beauty, sexuality, and femininity. Political activism was centered on expanding civil rights and social equality for women. For example, feminists advocated for a woman’s right to make her own choices about her body, including a basic right to have access to birth control and abortion.

The Fourth-wave builds on the third wave's emphasis on inclusivity and asks questions about empowerment, equality, and freedom. In addition, it continues to examine the intersectionality of various groups, such as the LGBTQ+ movement. Social media activism has propelled the movement firmly into the technological age. As such, its beginnings are usually dated to around 2008. The #MeToo movement is one example of the wave's political and social activism.