1.10: Clarks-Cross Cultural Issues

Cross Cultural Issues

There is a risk that theories and data derived from White, European American settings could be assumed to apply to children and social groups from other cultures and this is unlikely to be true (Betancourt & López, 1993). For example, a study of characteristics of individuals seeking treatment for a binge eating disorder in Hispanic American, African American, and Caucasian American individuals found significant differences between groups (Franko et al., 2012). The study concluded that results from studying any one of the groups could not be extended to the other groups, and yet potential causes of the differences were not measured.

In 1920, Francis Cecil Sumner was the first African American to receive a PhD in psychology in the United States. Sumner established a psychology degree program at Howard University, leading to the education of a new generation of African American psychologists (Black et al., 2004). Much of the work of early psychologists from diverse backgrounds was dedicated to challenging intelligence testing and promoting innovative educational methods for children. George I. Sanchez contested such testing with Mexican American children. As a psychologist of Mexican heritage, he pointed out that the language and cultural barriers in testing were keeping children from equal opportunities (Guthrie, 1998). By 1940, he was teaching with his doctoral degree at University of Texas at Austin and challenging segregated educational practices (Romo, 1986).

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) Drs. Kenneth and Mamie Clark. (Public Domain, Wikimedia)

In the previous section, Erikson discussed obstacles to the development of identity. One of these obstacles is negative identity which is when a person rejects the roles expected by one’s family, community, and society. Negative identity is the basis for the work of Mamie and Kenneth Clark’s valuable research. Extending this idea, it stands to reason that identity formation may be particularly problematic for minotized communities such as females, people of color and children with atypical development as they tend to believe the societal norms related to their value and worth. For more information on these mioritized groups, see chapter 8.

Kenneth and Mamie Clark designed studies to investigate children’s sense of identity, including tests using dolls, coloring, and drawings. The Drs. Clark, researched the development of consciousness of self in young children. In one test, Black preschool children were shown a series of line drawings of a White boy and a Black boy, a lion, a clown, and a hen and were asked to identify themselves or others. The results showed that, more often than not, the children selected the drawing of the Black boy to identify themselves rather than the drawing of the White boy (or any of the animals). The outcome of that research indicated that young Black children developed a consciousness of their race between 3 to 4 years of age. In another test, when given a variety of brown crayons to choose from, the children in the study used a crayon lighter than their own shade to color in their skin. This research laid the foundation for the groundbreaking research and for a myriad of racialized identity formation theories.

With additional questions emerging such as why are children using lighter shaded crayons to represent themselves, Kenneth and Mamie Clark conducted experiments known as “The Doll Test”. The premise was to understand the role of segregation and it's impact on Black children; however, the research ended up providing information about all children as discussed later. To understand racial identity development, the Drs. Clark used identical dolls with the only variable being the color of the doll's skin. The researchers found that:

1. Black children often chose to play with the White dolls more than the Black ones.
2. The children gave the color 'white' positive attributes like good and pretty; moreover, the 'black doll' was attributed to being bad and ugly.

Using Black and White dolls, some of the young Black children actually cried when asked to point to the doll they looked most like (Clark & Clark, 1947). The Clarks concluded that “prejudice, discrimination, and segregation” created a feeling of inferiority among African-American children and damaged their self-esteem. The original results by Drs. Clark can still be replicated with today's children.

This video is not closed captioned. However, viewing the video you can capture the main understanding of the video. The children accurately point to the White doll when asked and the Black doll when asked. They are then asked which doll is the pretty doll and point to the White doll. They are asked, "which doll is the nice doll" and point to the White doll. They are then asked "which doll is the bad doll" and they point to the Black doll. Finally they are ask "why is that doll bad" and they respond " Because it is Black". This indicates even at an early age children have been socialized to equate a negative meaning with being "Black". Although this particular video uses only Black children. It has been replicated many time with children of all racialized backgrounds.

The above video is a replication of the original doll test study. The doll test was instrumental in the landmark ruling in Brown vs. Board of Education. This testimony changed the trajectory of public education for all children. The Supreme Court cited Clark’s 1950 paper in its Brown decision and acknowledged it implicitly in the following passage: “To separate [African-American children] from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone.” Although this was an accomplishment for his research, Dr. Kenneth Clark was dismayed that the court failed to cite two other conclusions he had reached: that racism was an inherently American institution and that school segregation inhibited the development of white children, too. (American Psychological Association, 2019).

Listen to the podcast below describing the Clarks’ research and impact on the Supreme Court decision.

Doll Test Implications for All children

Dr. Clark's last conclusion, as noted above, that racism "is an inhibition in development of White children too" was not cited in the Brown vs Board of Education ruling, but it is important to understand the full implications of the research. The Drs. Clark hypothesized that racialized identity and White preference is not only an issue for Black American children but for most children. Most children have been socialized to prefer whiteness and to associate blackness with negativity. To corroborate this, the doll test has been replicated in many countries with shocking results. According to Gibson, Robbins & Rochat (2015), there is an even stronger White preference bias in five to seven-year-old Indian, Polynesian, and Melanesian children tested in their native island nations. These results are consistent with the idea that, during the preschool years, children are sensitive and attracted to signs of higher social status that, for historical reasons and across cultures, tends to be associated with lighter skin color. The research done by the Clarks is no longer being used as evidence for the need for integration but points to the outcomes of all children living in racist and discriminating social world.

Take a look at these videos to see how children of diverse ethnic and racialized identities responded similarly to the original experiments. These videos include captioning in the section of importance.

Replicated Doll Test Italian Children

Replicated Doll Test in Japan Children

Not fully closed captioned; however, the captions are not needed. At minute 3:15 captions are embedded. The children are asked " whhich do you prefer" the children point to the "White doll". Noting a clear White preference.

After all of the Drs. Clark research and irrefutable evidence of the dangers of racism and prejudice, a recent report by UCLA (2014) notes we have lost much of the ground on segregating schools. In fact, that report finds that schools are segregated by race, language, and socio-economic status, and that Latinx children are the most segregated of any group. To read more about our national statistics and changing demographics read the UCLA report in full.

Reflection

Given the changing landscape outlined in the report above, what impact do you anticipate an increase segregation will have on all children, their self-esteem, and identity?

References

Betancourt, H., & López, S. R. (1993). The study of culture, ethnicity, and race in American psychology. American Psychologist, 48, 629–637.

Black, S. R., Spence, S. A., & Omari, S. R. (2004). Contributions of African Americans to the field of psychology. Journal of Black Studies, 35, 40–64.

Franko, D. L., et al. (2012). Racial/ethnic differences in adults in randomized clinical trials of binge eating disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80, 186–195.

Gibson, B., Robbins, E., & Rochat, P. (2015). White bias in 3-7-year-old children across cultures. Journal of Cognition and Culture, 15(3-4), 344–373.

Guthrie, R. (1998). Even the rat was white (2nd edition). Allyn and Bacon.

Orfield, G., & Frankenberg, E. (2014, May 15). Brown at 60: Great Progress, a Long Retreat, and an Uncertain Future. The Civil Rights Project.

Romo, R. (1986). George I. Sanchez and the civil rights movement: 1940–1960. La Raza Law Journal, 1, 342–362.

Attribution

Why Study Sociology?. Authored by: OpenStax CNX. Located at: https://cnx.org/contents/AgQDEnLI@10.1:JHjddfwj/Why-Study-Sociology. License: CC BY:

Pressbooks. (2016). Introduction to Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World. Openstax.