14.2: Physical Development
- Page ID
- 205628
\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)
\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)
\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)
\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)
\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)
\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)
\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
\( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)
\( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)
\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)
\( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)
\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)
\( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)
\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)
\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)
\( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}} % arrow\)
\( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}} % arrow\)
\( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)
\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)
\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)Physical Growth
Physical development is the rate of a child's bodily growth and ability to exert control over:
- muscles,
- coordination,
- and ability to use locomotion.
The first eight years of life are characterized by rapid growth, which happens most quickly in infancy and toddlerhood, and tapering in preschool and the middle childhood years. However, there are many individual differences among children in the rate of maturation (Gordon & Browne, 2007), but growth follows a typical sequential pattern. In terms of psychical growth, part of this pattern is directional in children's development from head to toe. This is called cephalocaudal development. An example of cephalocaudal development is the torso lengthening throughout early childhood and how it lowers the center of gravity. With this type of growth, children are able to balance better and are less likely to fall.
Growth also starts at the center of the body and moves outward. This is called proximodistal development. Children's arms and legs grow before hands and feet, which is why children will walk and run before being able to use scissors.
It is important to remember that growth patterns, while sequential and directional, are "not smooth and unbroken" (Gordon & Browne, 2007, pg. 387). When observing how children grow, professionals and parents should remember that each child grows at their own pace. Generally, if a child develops early, on time, or late in one area, they will likely follow the same pattern in other areas of physical development.
Table 14.2.1 shows an overview of how physical growth occurs in childhood.
| Age | Weight | Height | Proportion (Gordon & Browne, 2007) | Teeth |
| Newborn (Neonate) | 7-7.5lbs | 20" | Head is about 25% of the total body length | None |
| Infancy (up to 18 months) | Triples weight by end of first year. | Grows about 8" in length. (now 28-29" on average) | About the same | First tooth appears between 5-9 months. |
| Toddler (18-30 months) | Gains about 5 lb. | Grows another 1-4". (now 29-33" on average) | Legs = 34% of body | Teeth continue to erupt until about age two, with 20 teeth in total. |
| Preschool (30-60 months) | Gains 5-7 lbs a year. | Grows 2-3" per year. | Head growth slows; legs at age 5 = 44% of body. | 20. Shedding can start to occur as early as age 5 to be replaced by permanent teeth. |
| Middle Childhood (5-11 years) | Gains 4-7 lbs a year. | Grows 2-3" per year. | Continues to slowly move towards adult proportions. | Shedding of baby teeth continues, or starts and lasts until about age 13. Twenty primary teeth are replaced by 32 permanent teeth. |
Motor Development
Motor development is part of physical development and refers to the change in motor behavior to use one's body and motor skills. Motor development can be divided into gross and fine motor skills.
Gross Motor
Gross motor skills involve movements of the entire body or large parts of the body and include balance, coordination, purposeful control, locomotion, flexibility, and stability. A child's ability to be psychically active depends on his/her rate of physical growth and development.
Table 14.2.2 shares types of gross motor skills and related activities.
| Gross Motor Skill | Activities |
| Balance and coordination | Standing, squatting, tiptoeing, jumping |
| Locomotion | Rolling, crawling, walking, running |
| Purposeful control | Throwing, catching, kicking, dancing |
| Flexibility and stability | Bending, twisting, stretching, balancing |
Gross Motor Milestones
The following Figure 14.2.1 shares general gross motor guidelines for children ages 0-5 years.
Figure 14.2.1 "General Gross Motor Milestones". by Heather Carter is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 Accessible version.
Fine Motor
Fine motor skills refer to the level of coordination and manipulation of smaller muscles and extremities, such as the hands and feet, and include:
- grasping
- reaching
- banging
- pushing
- spinning
- holding
Fine Motor Milestones
The following figure shares general fine motor guidelines for children birth to 2 years of age and 2-5 years of age.
.png?revision=1)
Figure 14.2.2 "General Fine Motor Milestones". by Heather Carter is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. Accessible version.
Perceptual Motor
Perceptual motor development is a "process in which the child develops the skill and ability to take in and interpret information from the environment and respond to it with movement" (Gordon & Browne, 2007, pg. 392). Children gather this information via the five senses before perceiving (processing), and reacting (motor response). Within perceptual-motor development are three basic categories of sensing and responding: spatial awareness, temporal awareness, and sensory awareness.
Spatial awareness is the sense of how a body feels and moves through space. A good example of spatial awareness is directional awareness and knowing when, where, and how to move while walking from point A to point B.
Temporal awareness is the internal time structure that recognizes the relationship between movement and time, such as eye-hand and eye-foot coordination.
Sensory awareness is the body's ability to utilize one, or more, of the five senses to give the mind information. The most common sense for young children is vision. Visual awareness allows children to mimic what is observed in their environment, including allowing young infants to recognize their mother as early as 3 months old. Further sensory awareness develops via auditory and touch inputs, which are important for language development and developing attachments.
Gender and Cultural Differences
When it comes to motor development, girls outperform boys on fine (writing, drawing, cutting, and using small objects) and gross motor skills (waving, walking, jumping, and running) by ages 2-3 years, but these differences narrow significantly by age 5 with no significant difference (Peyre et.al, 2019). In regards to physical development, up to late middle childhood, boys and girls grow in height and weight at about the same rate. Both sexes experience a slim-down effect in middle childhood, due to lung capacity increasing allowing for more strenuous physical activity (Jensen & Arnett, 2022). However, in terms of body composition, boys tend to be more muscular than girls, while girls have more body fat (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2024).
Girls enter puberty about two years before boys, which causes body fat to increase, and growth spurts to occur. Once boys enter puberty, the additional testosterone in boys adds more muscle mass (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2024). The minimal differences that existed in both motor and physical development between the sexes become much more obvious in adolescence.
Cultural differences emphasize the role of environment and parenting on gross motor skills, as some societies restrict infant's movements for the first 6-12 months of life due to a way of life and living (consider terrain, how food and water are sourced, and chores that unrestricted movement would be hazardous). Swaddling is a common practice, as is carrying or holding babies up to 80% of the time. How does this impact development? Short-term, it means that the average age for hitting milestones may look different. Instead of walking around age 1, a child may be closer to age 2. However, long-term effects tend to be minimal, because the development pattern remains the same, just occurs on a different timetable (Gupta, 2019).
References
American Academy of Pediatrics. (2024). Body composition and flexibility. Healthy children.org: Healthy living. Retrieved May 21, 2024: https://www.healthychildren.org/Engl...exibility.aspx
Council for Professional Recognition. (3rd Ed.). (2023). Essentials for working with young children. Author.
Gordon, A.M. & Browne, K.W. (2007). Beginning essentials in early childhood education. Thomson Delmar Learning.
Gupta, S. (September, 2019). Culture helps shape when babies learn to walk: Motor development models based on Western standards are too narrow. Science new Retrieved May 21, 2024: https://www.sciencenews.org/article/...ies-learn-walk
Peyre, H., Albaret, J. M., Bernard, J. Y., Hoertel, N., Melchior, M., Forhan, A., Taine, M., Heude, B., De Agostini, M., Galéra, C., Ramus, F., & EDEN Mother-Child Cohort Study (2019). Developmental trajectories of motor skills during the preschool period. European child & adolescent psychiatry, 28(11), 1461–1474. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-019-01311-x