11.3: Sexual Development in Adolescence
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- 167223
Puberty
Puberty is a period of rapid growth and sexual maturation. These changes begin sometime between eight and fourteen. People assigned female at birth begin puberty at around ten years of age and people assigned male at birth begin approximately two years later. Pubertal changes take around three to four years to complete. Adolescents experience an overall physical growth spurt.
Typically, the growth spurt during adolescence is followed by the development of sexual maturity. Sexual changes are divided into two categories: Primary sexual characteristics and secondary sexual characteristics. Primary sexual characteristics are changes in the reproductive organs. For some, this includes growth of the testes, penis, scrotum, and spermarche or first ejaculation of semen. This occurs between 11 and 15 years of age. For others, primary characteristics include growth of the uterus and menarche or the first menstrual period. The female gametes, which are stored in the ovaries, are present at birth, but are immature. Each ovary contains about 400,000 gametes, but only 500 will become mature eggs (Crooks & Baur, 2007). Beginning at puberty, one ovum ripens and is released about every 28 days during the menstrual cycle. Higher percentage of body fat can bring menstruation at younger ages.
Secondary sexual characteristics are visible physical changes not directly linked to reproduction but signal sexual maturity. For males this includes broader shoulders and a lower voice as the larynx grows. Hair becomes coarser and darker, and hair growth occurs in the pubic area, under the arms and on the face. For females, breast development occurs around age 10, although full development takes several years. Hips broaden, and pubic and underarm hair develops and also becomes darker and coarser.
Adolescent Sexual Activity
By about age ten or eleven, most children, regardless of sexual orientation, experience increased sexual attraction to others that affects social life, both in school and out (McClintock & Herdt, 1996). By the end of high school, more than half of boys and girls report having experienced sexual intercourse at least once, though it is hard to be certain of the proportion because of the sensitivity and privacy of the information (Center for Disease Control, 2004; Rosenbaum, 2006). Researchers identified many biopsychosocial influences that linked to early timing of sexual debut (first sexual intercourse). Among them are early puberty, anxious attachment style, sensation-seeking personality and positive beliefs and attitudes towards sex. In addition, several studies have found that there is a link between delayed sexual activity and receiving more parental support and parental supervision (Buhi and Goodson, 2007).
Masturbation
Masturbation is the most common sexual behavior among adolescents. Among American 14-17-year-olds, those reporting masturbation in the past year also report higher levels of several forms of partnered sex, including having given or received oral sex, penile-vaginal intercourse, and penile-anal intercourse (Robbins et al., 2011). Gender differences are evident in that women’s masturbation prevalence increased from 34% among those reporting penile-vaginal sex occurring less frequently than four times in the last four weeks to 72% among those women reporting at least 16 occasions. In contrast, the prevalence of masturbation was most frequent among men reporting fewer than four occasions of sex in the last four weeks (Gerressu et al., 2008).
Masturbation can provide a means of gaining familiarity and comfort with one’s sexual responses and genitals (Hogarth & Ingham, 2009). Masturbation and non-coital orgasm among young women is associated with higher levels of sexual self-awareness, greater efficacy achieving pleasure, and more resistance to gendered double standards (Horne & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2005). Young men—but not young women—who report masturbation in the past year are substantially more likely to report condom use with penile-vaginal intercourse than young men who do not report masturbating (Robbins et al., 2011).
Sexual Identity
According to Carroll (2016), by age 14 most adolescents become interested in intimate relationships, and they may begin sexual experimentation. Many adolescents feel pressure to express interest in opposite-sex relationships, even if they are not ready to do so. This pressure can be especially stressful for those adolescents who are gay, lesbian, bisexual or questioning their sexual identity. Many non-heterosexual adolescents struggle with negative peer and family reactions during their exploration. A lack of parental acceptance can adversely affect LGBTQ+ adolescents’ emerging sexual identity and may result in feelings of depression. In contrast, adolescents whose families support their sexual identity have better health outcomes.
Adolescent Pregnancy
In 2018 females aged 15-19 years experienced a birth rate (live birth) of 17.4 per 1,000 women. The birth rate for teenagers has declined by 58% since 2007 and 72% since 1991, the most recent peak (Hamilton, Joyce, Martin, & Osterman, 2019). It appears that adolescents seem to be less sexually active than in previous years, and those who are sexually active seem to be using birth control (CDC, 2016).
After the child is born life can be difficult for a teenage mother. Only 40% of teenagers who have children before age 18 graduate from high school. Without a high school degree her job prospects are limited, and economic independence is difficult. Teen mothers are more likely to live in poverty, and more than 75% of all unmarried teen mothers live in poverty within 5 years of the birth of their first child. Approximately, 64% of children born to an unmarried teenage high-school dropout live in poverty. Further, a child born to a teenage mother is 50% more likely to repeat a grade in school and is more likely to perform poorly on standardized tests and drop out before finishing high school (March of Dimes, 2012).
Research analyzing the age that men father their first child and how far they complete their education have been summarized by the Pew Research Center (2015) and reflect the research for females. Among dads ages 22 to 44, 70% of those with less than a high school diploma say they fathered their first child before the age of 25. In comparison, less than half (45%) of fathers with some college experience became dads by that age. Additionally, becoming a young father occurs much less for those with a bachelor’s degree or higher as just 14% had their first child prior to age 25. Like men, women with more education are likely to be older when they become mothers.
Romantic Relationships
Adolescence is the developmental period during which romantic relationships typically first emerge. By the end of adolescence, most American teens have had at least one romantic relationship (Dolgin, 2011). Dating serves many purposes for teens, including having fun, companionship, status, socialization, sexual experimentation, intimacy, and partner selection for those in late adolescence (Dolgin, 2011).
There are several stages in the dating process beginning with engaging in mixed-sex group activities in early adolescence for heterosexual teens (Dolgin, 2011). The same-sex peer groups that were common during childhood expand into mixed-sex peer groups that are more characteristic of adolescence. Romantic relationships often form in the context of these mixed-sex peer groups (Connolly, Furman, & Konarski, 2000). Interacting in mixed-sex groups is easier for teens as they are among a supportive group of friends, can observe others interacting, and are kept safe from a too early intimate relationship. By middle adolescence teens are engaging in brief, casual dating or in group dating with established couples (Dolgin, 2011). Then in late adolescence dating involves exclusive, intense relationships. These relationships tend to be long-lasting and continue for a year or longer, however, they may also interfere with friendships.
Although romantic relationships during adolescence are often short-lived rather than long-term committed partnerships, their importance should not be minimized. Adolescents spend a great deal of time focused on romantic relationships, and their positive and negative emotions are more tied to romantic relationships, or lack thereof, than to friendships, family relationships, or school (Furman & Shaffer, 2003). Romantic relationships contribute to adolescents’ identity formation, changes in family and peer relationships, and emotional and behavioral adjustment.
Furthermore, romantic relationships are centrally connected to adolescents’ emerging sexuality. Parents, policymakers, and researchers have devoted a great deal of attention to adolescents’ sexuality, in large part because of concerns related to sexual intercourse, contraception, and preventing teen pregnancies. However, sexuality involves more than this narrow focus. For example, adolescence is often when individuals who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender come to perceive themselves as such (Russell, Clarke, & Clary, 2009). Thus, romantic relationships are a domain in which adolescents experiment with new behaviors and identities.
However, a negative dating relationship can adversely affect an adolescent’s development. Soller (2014) explored the link between relationship inauthenticity and mental health. Relationship in authenticity refers to an incongruence between thoughts/feelings and actions within a relationship. Desires to gain partner approval and demands in the relationship may negatively affect an adolescent’s sense of authenticity. Soller found that relationship inauthenticity was positively correlated with poor mental health, including depression, suicidal ideation and suicide attempts, especially for females.
Sex Education
Many adolescents begin their sexual explorations with a lack of knowledge about sex and human anatomy. Many parents would like their kids to know about sex, but seldom talk to their kids about sex and expect the schools to provide sex education. Unfortunately, many school-based sex education is inadequate and, in some cases, provides incorrect information. With comprehensive school and community based sex-ed programs, we can prevent unintended teen pregnancies and to keep back the spread of STI among young people (What do I need to know about STDs?, 2022).