5.6: Student Resources

Key Terms/Glossary

• Americanization: the process by which American culture, values, and norms exert influence and become integrated into other societies and cultures, often through media, technology, and economic interactions.
• Artifact: an object or item created or modified by humans, often with cultural, historical, or archeological significance, that provides insight into the practices and beliefs of a particular group of people.
• Contagious diffusion: a type of cultural diffusion where a cultural element spreads throughout a population via direct contact with practicing individuals.
• Cultural diffusion: the spread of cultural elements from one group or society to another, often facilitated by communication, trade, migration, or political domination.
• Cultural globalization: the worldwide diffusion and integration of cultural elements, including values, behaviors, and cultural products, resulting from increased interconnectedness and communication among groups and or societies, resulting in mutually shared cultural elements.
• Cultural hearth: a place or region where a particular cultural element is believed to have originated.
• Economies of scale: the cost advantages that result from increasing the scale of production or operation, often leading to lower per-unit costs as production quantities increase.
• Folk culture: the traditional and locally specific customs, beliefs, practices, and material culture of a particular group or community, often rooted in rural or isolated areas.
• Global capitalism: an economic system characterized by private ownership, free markets, and the pursuit of profit on a global scale, often facilitated by multinational and or transnational corporations and global trade.
• Global city: a major urban center that plays a significant role in the global economy and serves as a hub for international business, finance, culture, and politics.
• Glocalization: the adaptation of global products, services, or ideas to suit local contexts, resulting in a fusion of global and local elements.
• Hierarchical diffusion: a type of cultural diffusion where an idea, innovation, or cultural trait spreads in a structured, top-down manner, typically from a central source to other locations, or via political dominance.
• Hyper-standardization: the extreme standardization of products, services, or cultural elements to the point where they become uniform and lack diversity.
• McDonaldization: a term coined by sociologist George Ritzer to describe the process of rationalization and standardization in modern society, often exemplified by fast-food restaurant chains like McDonald's.
• Mentifact: an element of culture that encompasses non-material aspects such as beliefs, values, customs, rituals, and ideologies.
• Neoliberal governance: a form of governance and economic policy that emphasizes free-market capitalism, deregulation, privatization, and limited government intervention in the economy.
• Popular culture: the cultural products, practices, and trends that are widely consumed, shared, and appreciated by a large, mainstream audience within a society or across societies.
• Relocation diffusion: the spread of an idea, innovation, or cultural trait through the physical movement of people from one place to another.
• Social barriers: obstacles or restrictions within a society that hinder or limit the interaction, integration, or participation of certain groups or individuals based on social factors such as nationality, religion, race, gender, class, or ethnicity.
• Sociofact: an element of culture that encompasses accepted behaviors and social practices of a group.
• Sticky (Culturally): refers to cultural elements or practices that are compatible with a new culture, to which they are introduced, and are thus incorporated into said culture.
• Supply chain: the interconnected network of organizations, processes, and activities involved in the production, distribution, and delivery of goods and services from raw materials to end consumers.

Summaries

Section 5.1 Introduction: Culture in a Global Context 

Cultural globalization emphasizes the increasing interconnectedness of people and societies due to factors such as time-space compression and the flow of information, capital, and ideas. Social scientists often prioritize the economic and political aspects of globalization, but understanding its impact on people's daily lives is essential. Cultural globalization may be leading to the formation of a global culture, however the diversity within the human population, along with social barriers suggests that creation of a single global monoculture is not likely. Cultural elements can be understood in terms of three basic categories: artifacts (objects and traits within a technical system), sociofacts (behavioral norms guiding social interactions), and mentifacts (values, belief systems, and ways of thinking). These cultural elements can change and adapt over time and place. They originate in cultural hearths, which are starting points for cultural elements that diffuse outward. 

Section 5.2 Background: The Diffusion of Culture 

There are three main types of cultural diffusion: contagious diffusion, relocation diffusion, and hierarchical diffusion. Contagious diffusion involves the spread of cultural elements through interpersonal interactions, such as slang terms or fashion trends. Relocation diffusion occurs when cultural elements are brought to new areas by migrating populations, and these elements may become integrated into the wider culture if they are accepted. Hierarchical diffusion involves the spread of cultural trends from larger populations or regions to smaller ones, often driven by power dynamics or governance. Cultural elements may be broadly understood as folk culture and popular culture. Folk culture tends to be localized and transmitted through contagious and relocation diffusion. It often lacks clear originators and is shaped by local environmental factors and social norms. Popular culture, on the other hand, is associated with specific starting points and is characterized by commercialization. It spreads hierarchically and is influenced by globalization, with elements created in developed economies and distributed globally. Therefore, globalization favors popular culture over folk culture due to standardization, advertising, and media dominance. Under global capitalism, corporate networks and supply chains lead to homogenization of food products, replacing localized variations. 

Section 5.3 Theories: Cultural Diffusion 

Global cities play a crucial role in cultural diffusion. They feature robust infrastructure, connectivity, and the presence of entities that promote the distribution of cultural elements. Three cities, London, New York, and Tokyo, are considered top global cities due to the breadth of activities centered in and around them. These cities house multinational corporations, financial institutions, and major cultural drivers. They attract significant investment, tourism, and highly educated populations engaged in higher-order economic sectors. Culture produced in global cities diffuses globally, initially spreading to regional centers of culture and then to smaller communities. The better connected a city is within the global urban network, the more likely its population is to participate in cultural globalization. "McWorld" or "McDonaldization," where American cultural exports, driven by multinational corporations like McDonald's, are seen as dominant in global cultural diffusion. This dominance has led to concerns of cultural homogenization, with American culture being often being equated with globalization. However, cultural globalization is not solely one-way, as American consumers also adopt elements from other parts of the world, particularly from Europe and East Asia. It highlights the role of corporations based in developed regions in controlling global supply chains and distribution networks.

5.4 At Home and Abroad: A Hypothetical Friendship

Cultural globalization impacts everyday people, as illustrated by the hypothetical example of two friends in 2024, one from the United States and the other from Japan. People living in developed regions are all active participants in cultural globalization. Technological advancements, such as the internet and affordable air travel, have made it possible for individuals from different countries to form meaningful friendships and share common interests. This scenario would not have been feasible in the 1980s when communication was limited and expensive. Economic development, technology, and accessibility play crucial roles in cultural globalization. Developed regions with high connectivity, like the United States and Japan, are more likely to engage in cultural exchanges, while less developed areas, like Central Africa, may have limited participation. Cultural globalization is an ongoing process closely linked to global capitalism and consumerism. While the dominance of American culture in this process should not be overlooked, there is high potential for other regions to participate and adapt cultural elements as they continue to develop.

Suggestions for Further Study

Websites

• Global Society for Sustainable Development (Website presenting stories of individuals working toward global goals)
• Global Policy Forum, Globalization of Culture (Collection of articles and documents concerning global issues)
• National Geographic, Globalization (Resource on globalization)

Books

• Hopper, P. (2007). Understanding cultural globalization. Polity.  
• Jensen, L. A., Arnett, J. J., & McKenzie, J. (2011). Globalization and cultural identity. Springer.
• Tomlinson, J. (1999). Globalization and culture. University of Chicago Press.

Journal Articles

• Jansson, J., & Power, D. (2010). Fashioning a global city: Global city brand channels in the fashion and design industries. Regional Studies, 44(7), 889-904.
• Ritzer, G. "The “McDonaldization” of Society." Journal of American Culture 6, no. 1 (1983): 100-107.
• Sheppard, E. (2002). The spaces and times of globalization: Place, scale, networks, and positionality. Economic geography, 78(3), 307-330.

Review Questions 

1. What are the three basic processes of cultural diffusion mentioned in the text?
   1. Folk culture, popular culture, and global culture.
   2. Contagious diffusion, relocation diffusion, and hierarchical diffusion.
   3. Transportation, globalization, and urbanization.
   4. Global capitalism, commercialization, and mass production.
2. Which type of diffusion involves cultural elements spreading through interpersonal contact or close contact with others?
   1. Hierarchical diffusion
   2. Relocation diffusion
   3. Contagious diffusion
   4. Cultural resistance diffusion
3. What is the main difference between folk culture and popular culture in terms of diffusion?
   1. Folk culture is primarily spread through hierarchical diffusion, while popular culture is spread through relocation diffusion.
   2. Folk culture is characterized by mass production, while popular culture relies on localized production.
   3. Folk culture tends to be more localized and spreads through contagious and relocation diffusion, while popular culture is hierarchical and spreads quickly via        communication networks.
   4. Folk culture originates in urban areas, while popular culture originates in rural regions.
4. Which factors are considered requisite for a city to become a “global city” with major cultural influence?
   1. Population size and natural resources
   2. Access to transportation infrastructure and telecommunications, as well as the presence of entities promoting cultural distribution
   3. Agricultural productivity and proximity to rural areas
   4. Historical significance and architectural landmarks
5. According to the McWorld model, what is the main criticism of cultural globalization?
   1. Cultural globalization mainly involves a two-way flow of cultural diffusion.
   2. Cultural globalization is synonymous with Americanization, with American culture dominating global markets.
   3. Cultural globalization primarily occurs through relocation diffusion.
   4. Cultural globalization is driven by folk culture rather than popular culture.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. How do the processes of contagious diffusion, relocation diffusion, and hierarchical diffusion contribute to cultural diffusion, and how do they differ in their impact on the spread of culture?
2. What are the key distinctions between folk culture and popular culture in terms of their origins, diffusion patterns, and impacts in the context of globalization and cultural homogenization? How has globalization favored one over the other, and what are the consequences of this favoritism for cultural diversity worldwide?
3. How do global cities play a pivotal role in the process of cultural globalization, and what specific factors make cities like London, New York, and Tokyo central to the diffusion of cultural elements on a global scale?
4. In the context of cultural globalization, what are the potential advantages and disadvantages of hyper-standardization, as exemplified by American-based multinational corporations, and how does the concept of glocalization address the challenges of adapting cultural elements to local contexts?