4.3: Systems of Democracy

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Identify the defining characteristics of presidential, parliamentary, and semi-presidential systems of democratic government.
• Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each of the systems of government.

Introduction

Depending on the relative distribution of power between the legislative and executive branches within a democracy, there are three potential systems of government: the presidential system, the parliamentary system, and the semi-presidential system. Each of these systems was designed to fit the context and culture of its democracy, and each has its share of advantages and disadvantages.

Systems of Government

The presidential system, sometimes called the "single executive system," is one in which an elected president leads the executive branch, acting both as the head of government and as the head of state. There is a clear separation of powers in this system, with the executive branch and the legislative branch distinct, and with the president elected independently from the legislature. Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, and the United States are all examples of states with presidential systems. In each state, the president serves a fixed term. In Colombia, as one example, the president can serve a single term of four years; in Mexico, as another example, the president can serve a single term of six years.

The parliamentary system is one in which the chief executive, usually a prime minister, is not directly elected and is instead chosen by the legislature (parliament). The prime minister typically serves as the head of government, but not the head of state. In the United Kingdom, for example, the British monarch serves as the head of state in a largely ceremonial role while the prime minister serves as the head of government who directs day-to-day political activities. Prime ministers must have the support of the legislature in order to take office and, should the legislature desire a change in executive leadership, it can remove the prime minister through a "vote of no confidence."

The semi-presidential system, sometimes called "the dual executive system," is one in which a state has both a president and a prime minister, and the dual executives share power. The president is typically directly elected and serves as the head of state. The Prime Minister is typically appointed by the president and serves as the head of government. In France, for instance, the president is directly elected and then appoints the prime minister, but the French legislature retains the ability to dismiss the prime minister through a vote of no confidence. In this way, the semi-presidential system combines elements from the presidential and parliamentary systems.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Each of the three systems of government has potential advantages and disadvantages.

The executive's popular election and fixed term within the presidential system is sometimes considered ideal, as it can ensure democratic legitimacy, produce stability, and provide voters with a clear understanding of the leadership timeline. Yet, at the same time, the direct election of the president can sometimes lead to a problem with personalization of power, where too much power centers on one person, which can lead to cronyism or the erosion of democratic institutions. It can also lead to gridlock, the inability to pass legislation, when different political parties control the executive and legislative branches. Finally, the fixed term can be a disadvantage if there is an unpopular president and no easy way to remove the executive (i.e., as there would be with a vote of no confidence). In the United States, for example, removal of a president requires either (1) impeachment and a trial conviction through the legislature or (2) the following of a process described in the 25th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. In either case, removing a president from office is exceedingly difficult. 

The executive removal process in a presidential system is far more cumbersome than in a parliamentary system. One advantage of a parliamentary system, therefore, is that the legislature can remove a prime minister from power at any time, and for any reason, by simply getting a majority consensus among the legislators. This is a dynamic and flexible model that has the ability to respond quickly when a lack of consensus arises. Yet while perhaps an advantage when a prime minister is unpopular and/or not completing their political agenda, the possibility for frequent changes in leadership can cause instability and uncertainty. Additional concerns related to instability exist because, in order to form a majority, parliamentary systems sometimes require political parties to form coalitions. Coalitions are temporary groupings between two or more political parties. These coalitions often contain fragmented political parties with widely divergent interests, which requires ongoing negotiations to please all sides.

The semi-presidential system may at first appear as if, by combining aspects of the presidential and parliamentary systems, it can avoid the flaws inherent in each. For instance, while the president (head of state) gains democratic legitimacy through elections, the prime minister (head of government) also faces accountability through the threat of a legislative vote of no confidence. In addition, it may seem to be an advantage to have a division of labor between a president and a prime minister. Yet a disadvantage of semi-presidential systems is that these roles can sometimes blur, causing confusion surrounding the responsibilities of the dual executives. This can also lead to power struggles between the dual executives, especially because the president's fixed term provides the head of state with an advantage over a prime minister who can be removed. 

Table 4.3.1 summarizes a few of the advantages and disadvantages of the three systems of government identified above.

Table 4.3.1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Presidential, Parliamentary, and Semi-Presidential Systems

	Presidential System	Parliamentary System	Semi-Presidential System
Advantages	clear separation of powers president gains legitimacy through elections  president has a fixed term	head of government (prime minister) depends on legislative approval, providing accountability legislature can remove the head of government through a vote of no confidence collective leadership is present, reducing the risk of personalization of power	president gains legitimacy through elections head of government (prime minister) depends on legislative approval, providing accountability division of work between the dual executives can decrease the amount of bureaucracy
Disadvantages	potential for gridlock difficult to remove president from power potential for personalization of power	lack of separation of powers between head of government and legislature head of government is not elected directly by the people potential for instability in the head of government and/or governing coalitions	fixed terms tend to favor the president in the dual executive relationship responsibilities for the dual executives can blur, leading to confusion  potential for power struggles between the dual executives