6.4: Gender

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Define and distinguish between gender and sex.
• Consider how factors such as gender identity and biological sex influence political, social, and economic outcomes.

Introduction

The political consequences of gender have been an area of increasing consideration in political science over the last two decades. Similar to previous sections in this chapter, how a term is defined has implications for how it is discussed, so it is important that we begin with clear terms. Gender encompasses a spectrum of characteristics ranging from feminine to masculine, and gender depends on a person's internal sense of self. Crucially, gender is a distinct concept from sex (or sometimes "biological sex"), which refers to biological differences. According to the World Health Organization, sex refers to "the different biological and physiological characteristics of females, males, and intersex persons, such as chromosomes, hormones, and reproductive organs." Sex is typically assigned at birth based on a set of physical characteristics. Gender, however, is more nuanced.

Gender refers to "the socially constructed characteristics of women and men – such as norms, roles, and relationships of and between groups of women and men. It varies from society to society and can be changed. The concept of gender includes five important elements: relational, hierarchical, historical, contextual, and institutional. While most people are born either male or female, they are taught appropriate norms and behaviors – including how they should interact with others of the same or opposite sex within households, communities, and work places. When individuals or groups do not 'fit' established gender norms, they often face stigma, discriminatory practices, or social exclusion – all of which adversely affect health." (World Health Organization)

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Three icons for people with different gender identities, adapted from an image by Dan Brunsdon for The Noun Project (Source: by Arkirkland via Wikimedia Commons is licensed under CC0 1.0 Public Domain)

Gender and Politics

The divide between male and female has often influenced politics. Women in many societies have been historically underrepresented and discriminated against. Looking globally at women’s suffrage, the right of women to vote in elections, over 180 countries now allow women to vote in some capacity. But beyond the right to vote, women’s rights globally are often not fully institutionalized, upheld, or prioritized.

In most countries, women who work do not earn the same as men in similar positions, even when their credentials and experience meet or exceed their male counterparts. An interesting case study of the unequal treatment for women’s rights can be seen with the COVID-19 pandemic, which, in most countries, tended to push women out of the workplace. In the United States alone, female workforce participation dropped to 57 percent, the lowest level since 1988. Of the 1.1 million people who were pushed from the workforce, 80 percent were women. Economic projections calculate it will take women twice as long as men to recover from their economic circumstances as a result of the pandemic. Outcomes outside of the United States were similarly poor for women. Women account for 39 percent of all jobs worldwide, but their participation in the workforce dropped by 54 percent with the pandemic. These findings have led a number of scholars to note that the pandemic had a globally regressive effect on gender equality.

Beyond economic outcomes, another area of concern is the acceptance (or lack thereof) of gender identity and sexual orientation in different states. Sexual orientation is the sustained pattern of romantic and/or sexual attraction to people of opposite sex or gender, same sex or gender, or both. The five top-ranked states in the world for acceptance of different gender identities and sexual orientations are Iceland, Norway, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Canada. On the flip-side, numerous states are accused of mistreating their citizens based on gender identities and sexual orientations, including Malawi, Malaysia, Nigeria, Oman, and Saudi Arabia. Many of these states have laws or legal codes that discriminate against members of the LGBTQIA+ community, such as so-called "morality laws" that criminalize a person's identity. The states may also engage in propaganda campaigns and mete out harsh punishments--long prison sentences and state-sanctioned violence, such as flogging--to those who do not align with the government's belief system.

According to a report published by UCLA’s School of Law that analyzed the social acceptance of LGBTQIA+ people across 175 states between 1981-2020, 56 states experienced improvements in rates of social acceptance, 57 states experienced decreases in rates of social acceptance, and 62 states experienced no change in the rate of social acceptance of the LGBTQIA+ community (Flores, 2021).