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7.7: Student Resources

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    Key Terms

    • Behaving, one of the four dimensions of religious identity, is religious commitment or behaving according to values privileged by religion.
    • Believing, one of the four dimensions of religious identity, is religious belief or believing in certain religious propositions.
    • Belonging, one of the four dimensions of religious identity, is religious affiliation or belonging to a religious faith, a religious tradition, or a denomination/sect within a particular religion.
    • Bonding, one of the four dimensions of religious identity, is religious ritual or bonding by means of spiritual practices and rituals.
    • Citizenship is a legal status of being a citizen of a particular state.
    • Class Identity is how a person, or group of persons, thinks of themselves in relation to others in society based on their economic and social position.
    • Conscription is compulsory enlistment for military service.
    • Constructivist identity is a theory positing that individuals have multiple identities and that, over time, those individuals may adopt new identities or reevaluate the importance of a particular identity.
    • Elites are the upper socio-economic class with consequential political power and social capital.
    • Elite theory is the idea that the elites not only have power, but that they intentionally use it for their own benefit.
    • Exclusionary nationalism is the idea that a nation is superior or exceptional, and this type of nationalism can lead to the marginalization of others and/or violence.
    • Four 'b’s' identifies four dimensions of religious identity: believing, belonging, behaving, and bonding.
    • Hyperpluralist society is a society with many identity groups that have different backgrounds, religions, and traditions, and those groups have priorities that are so divergent that it is near impossible to find compromise and agreement on shared values with everyone living within the state.
    • Identity politics refers to "political or social activity by or on behalf of a racial, ethnic, cultural, religious, gender, or other group, usually undertaken with the goal of rectifying injustices suffered by group members because of differences or conflicts between their particular identity (or misconceptions of their particular identity) and the dominant identity (or identities) of a larger society" (Britannica).
    • Intersectionality describes how the interconnectedness of various identities and categories can lead to the marginalization (or to the privilege) of particular people and/or groups.
    • Irredentist movement is an attempt by one state to restore a territory that previously belonged to it.
    • Liberal nationalism is the idea that every group of people with a clear national identity should have their own state that adheres that adheres to liberal principles (e.g., the protection of individual rights).
    • Marxism is an approach to political economy that is based on the idea of class conflict between the owner and worker classes.
    • Multinational state is a state that contains multiple nations.
    • Nation is broadly defined as a population of people joined by common culture, history, language, and/or ancestry within a designated region or territory.
    • National identity is how a person, or group of persons, thinks of themselves as belonging to and representing the values and traits of a nation.
    • Nationalism is "an ideology that elevates one nation or nationality above all others and that places primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests as opposed to those of other nations, nationalities, or supranational groups."
    • Nation-state is a state where all or most of the people in that state belong to a single nation.
    • Patriotism is pride in one’s state.
    • Pluralist society is a society comprised of many identity groups that have different backgrounds, religions, and traditions, and where an overarching identity exists that includes everyone living within the state.
    • Political identity is how a person, or group of persons, think of themselves in relation to the politics and government of a state.
    • Primordial identity, in the context of religious identity, means that individuals have only a single religious identity, and that this identity is fixed in the present and the future.
    • Religious identity is how a person, or group of persons, thinks of themselves as belonging to and representing the values of a particular religion and/or religious sect.
    • Religiosity is the strength of a person’s commitment to religion.
    • Separatist movement is an attempt by members of a group of people with shared identity to establish their own government, separate from the state they reside in. 
    • Social capital, in elite theory, is having connections and access to networks of other elites so as to increase one's influence beyond just economic resources.
    • Socioeconomic class is the combination of economic factors, such as income and wealth, with social factors, such as level of education and occupation.

    Summary

    Section 7.1: Political Identity and Identity Politics

    Political identity consists of the traits and beliefs that make us who we are, from gender to religion to ethnicity to political affiliation. Understanding different political identities is critical to any analysis of political systems. Identity politics refers to "political or social activity by or on behalf of a racial, ethnic, cultural, religious, gender, or other group, usually undertaken with the goal of rectifying injustices suffered by group members because of differences or conflicts between their particular identity (or misconceptions of their particular identity) and the dominant identity (or identities) of a larger society" (Britannica). While identity politics can provide a sense of belonging and purpose for a group of people, it also can lead to division and a sense of "us versus them" because it focuses the lens of specific identities and their differences. If the sense of belonging and membership in one group outweighs the sense of belonging and membership in a broader group, it can become more difficult for a state to address issues.

    Section 7.2: National Identity

    National identity is how a person or group of persons thinks of themselves as belonging to and representing the values and traits of a nation. This can range from a relatively narrow ethnic identity to a broader civic identity that encompasses many ethnic and religious groups. National identity can be inclusive or exclusive, as can the ideology of nationalism, which aims to ensure the boundaries of the nation and the state are the same. Nationalism can serve as the basis for irredentist and separatist movements. While national identity and political identity imply a feeling of belonging, citizenship is a legal status of being a citizen of a particular state. A person can feel a sense of belonging to a nation without being a citizen of the state in which the nation exists.

    Section 7.3: Religious Identity

    Religious identity is how a person, or group of persons, thinks of themselves as belonging to and representing the values of a particular religion and/or religious sect. Religious identity has four dimensions, referred to as the four 'b’s': believing, belonging, behaving, and bonding. Like national identity, religious identity can be a centralizing force leading to unity or a decentralizing force leading to exclusionary behavior or conflict. There is some debate about whether religious identity can come before the formation of a specific religion. Religious identity is not bound by geography, yet the intensity of religious identity - and its influence on politics - does vary across different countries.

    Section 7.4: Class Identity

    Class identity has two main components: economic and social. Economic class is about a person’s relative income and/or wealth in society. It is easier to measure and define than social class, though it is not always easy to see. Economic class is about power. Social class can be tied to or independent of economic class. Typically, those of high economic class also have high social status, yet social class is about how highly a person is respected and how well connected they are in their society. The subjective nature of social class means it varies across cultures and countries.

    Section 7.5: Comparative Case Study - Israel and Iran

    Using the Most Different Systems Design, we compare Israel and Iran on the dependent variable of political outcomes that favor religion (though the dominant religion differs in each case). The two states look similar on the dependent variable despite differing in numerous ways, such as in their respective types of government, economic policies, levels of secularization, amount of cooperation with the West, and socioeconomic indicators.

    Review Questions

    1. What are the components of political identity?
      1. ethnicity and religion
      2. gender and class
      3. ideology and nationality
      4. all of these
    2. How does understanding political identity relate to the study of comparative politics?
      1. political identity helps us understand and analyze political movements and systems
      2. political identity helps us understand why all wealthy people are conservatives
      3. political identity is a constant, rather than a variable, in studying comparative politics
    3. What are the 4 “b’s" of religious identity?
      1. believing, belonging, behaving, bonding
      2. believing, beholding, behaving, bonding
      3. bonding, behaving, belonging, bending
      4. behaving, binding, believing, beholding
    4. What political outcomes help demonstrate the dominance of Judaism in Israel and Shia Islam in Iran?
      1. legal codes that favor each group
      2. judicial system that includes religious courts
      3. favoritism and preferences for religious students and religious education
      4. the role of religious parties and factions in each country’s political system
      5. all of these answers are correct
    5. What is an example of political identity in Iran?
      1. the importance of the Iranian Revolution
      2. the inclusion of Kurds in Iranian politics
      3. the exclusion of religion as part of Iranian identity

    Answers: 1.d, 2.a, 3.a, 4.e, 5.a

    Critical Thinking Questions

    1. Predict how national identity, including national symbols, might change in Iran if it became more secular.
    2. Choose one of the focus countries from this chapter and explain whether you think religious identity there is primordial or constructivist.
    3. How does your class identity inform your political views?
    4. Explain how having a nation is necessary, but not sufficient, to have national identity.
    5. Israel and Iran are starkly different countries. Why study two states that are so different?

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    This page titled 7.7: Student Resources is shared under a CC BY-NC 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Dino Bozonelos, Julia Wendt, Charlotte Lee, Jessica Scarffe, Masahiro Omae, Josh Franco, Byran Martin, & Stefan Veldhuis (ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)) .