5: Working Memory
- Page ID
- 54089
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)Working memory is a fundamental cognitive process in psychology that involves the temporary storage and manipulation of information needed for complex cognitive tasks such as reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making. It is considered a limited capacity system that allows individuals to hold and work with information over short periods.
- 5.1: The difference between Working Memory and Short-Term Memory
- The concept of working memory (WM) has evolved to replace short-term memory (STM), focusing on both structures and processes used for storing and manipulating information. While STM traditionally referred to the temporary holding of information, WM encompasses a broader system that not only stores but also manipulates information. Despite this development, STM and WM are sometimes used interchangeably.
- 5.2: Components-Central Executive, Phonological Loop, Visuospatial Sketchpad
- Baddeley's model of working memory, proposed by Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch in 1974, emphasizes the role of working memory in cognitive processing. It consists of three main components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad. The central executive oversees attention, planning, and integrating information, while the phonological loop manages verbal information and language processing, and the visuospatial sketchpad handles visual and spatial data.
- 5.3: Long-Term Memory
- Long-term memory (LTM) is a vast and enduring type of memory storage that holds information indefinitely, encompassing knowledge from days to years past. It is divided into explicit memory, which requires conscious recall, and implicit memory, which influences behavior without conscious awareness. Explicit memory includes semantic (factual) and episodic (experiential) memories, while implicit memory includes procedural knowledge, conditioning effects, and priming.
- 5.4: Decay vs. Interference
- The page discusses the concepts of retroactive and proactive interference in memory retention. Retroactive interference occurs when new experiences hinder the ability to recall older memories, exemplified by difficulty remembering what you ate several days ago due to subsequent meals. Proactive interference happens when existing memories obstruct new learning, as seen in language acquisition where prior knowledge of one's native language affects learning a new one.
- 5.5: Forgetting
- Memory lapse is a common experience, often due to not encoding information correctly. Forgetting can occur due to memory decay over time or interference from other memories. Encoding failures often happen when we're distracted and don't pay attention to details. Memories may also be forgotten if they are not reinforced or because new experiences interfere with consolidation. Furthermore, retrieval failures can occur when appropriate cues are absent.
- 5.6: Encoding Specificity Principle
- Memory retrieval is significantly influenced by cues in the environment, as detailed by the encoding specificity principle. This principle suggests that retrieval is more successful when cues from the current context overlap with those from the memory's original context. Context-dependent learning supports this by showing improved recall when learning and testing environments are similar.
- 5.7: Reconstruction of Memories
- Memories are not exact replicas of reality; they are reconstructed and thus vulnerable to manipulation and bias. Mood, suggestion, and imagination can lead to memory errors, with schemas and leading questions playing significant roles. Memory biases, such as fading-affect bias and source amnesia, influence recall accuracy. Eyewitness testimony can be unreliable due to encoding issues, memory conformity, and the weapon-focus effect.
- 5.8: Autobiographical Memories
- Sir Frederic Bartlett, an influential English psychologist, investigated memory through the lens of cognitive and social processes. His notable method of research, known as repeated reproduction, analyzed how individuals recalled transformed versions of a story, particularly with his use of the Native American tale "The War of the Ghosts." Bartlett discovered that due to the story's nonconventional structure, participants often struggled with precise recall.
- 5.9: Amnesia
- The text explores amnesia, particularly anterograde and retrograde amnesia, and its portrayal in media versus reality. A key example is patient H.M., who developed anterograde amnesia after surgery, losing the ability to form new memories while maintaining procedural learning. The text distinguishes between organic amnesia, resulting from brain damage, and dissociative amnesia, linked to psychological trauma, illustrating how episodic and semantic memories are affected.
- 5.10: Eyewitness Memory
- Eyewitness testimony, though compelling in court, is highly susceptible to errors and biases, impacting the legal system significantly. This module explores common memory errors and their implications, emphasizing the influential research highlighting these inaccuracies. For instance, studies show that eyewitness misidentifications have contributed to wrongful convictions, often revealed in DNA exonerations.
- 5.11: Attention Blindness
- In the 1970s, psychologist Ulric Neisser developed a visual task to study inattentional blindness, revealing that when focused on a specific task, individuals often fail to notice unexpected events occurring right in front of them. This phenomenon was demonstrated in experiments where participants missed unusual occurrences, like a woman with an umbrella or a person in a gorilla suit, while counting passes in a basketball game video.
- 5.12: Weapon Focus
- Weapon focus refers to the impact of a visible weapon on the reliability of eyewitness testimony. When a weapon is present during a crime, it can capture the witness's attention, thus impairing their ability to recall other details of the event. Research, including a meta-analysis by Nancy Steblay, indicates a decrease in identification accuracy by approximately 10% when a weapon is present. In brief interactions, this effect is significant.
- 5.13: Cross –Race effect
- Eyewitness testimony significantly impacts criminal trials, yet jurors often overestimate its accuracy, leading to wrongful convictions, particularly due to eyewitness misidentification. The Cross-Race Effect (CRE) highlights biases in face recognition, with witnesses showing more lenient identification criteria for other-race faces. This bias can be addressed by modifying retrieval processes, such as providing specialized instructions during police lineups.
- 5.14: Source Monitoring
- Memory errors can occur when individuals struggle with source monitoring, or identifying the origins of their memories. Such errors are common among fantasy-prone individuals, children, and the elderly. A phenomenon called the "sleeper effect" describes how people may forget the source of information, potentially leading them to accept unreliable content as true over time.
- 5.15: Memory Techniques
- The page discusses various strategies to enhance memory, such as rehearsal, chunking, and mnemonic devices. These techniques aim to help individuals transition information from short-term to long-term memory. The importance of elaborative rehearsal and the self-reference effect is highlighted, emphasizing personal connections to the material. Other key methods include spaced repetition, exercise, sufficient sleep, and using mnemonic devices like acronyms and acrostics.