Key Terms

actor-observer bias

phenomenon of explaining other people’s behaviors are due to internal factors and our own behaviors are due to situational forces

ageism

prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based solely on their age

aggression

seeking to cause harm or pain to another person

altruism

humans’ desire to help others even if the costs outweigh the benefits of helping

Asch effect

group majority influences an individual’s judgment, even when that judgment is inaccurate

attitude

evaluations of or feelings toward a person, idea, or object that are typically positive or negative

attribution

explanation for the behavior of other people

bullying

a person, often an adolescent, being treated negatively repeatedly and over time

bystander effect

situation in which a witness or bystander does not volunteer to help a victim or person in distress

central route persuasion

logic-driven arguments using data and facts to convince people of an argument’s worthiness

cognitive dissonance

psychological discomfort that arises from a conflict in a person’s behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs that runs counter to one’s positive self-perception

collectivist culture

culture that focuses on communal relationships with others such as family, friends, and community

companionate love

type of love consisting of intimacy and commitment, but not passion; associated with close friendships and family relationships

confederate

person who works for a researcher and is aware of the experiment, but who acts as a participant; used to manipulate social situations as part of the research design

confirmation bias

seeking out information that supports our stereotypes while ignoring information that is inconsistent with our stereotypes

conformity

when individuals change their behavior to go along with the group even if they do not agree with the group

consummate love

type of love occurring when intimacy, passion, and commitment are all present

cyberbullying

repeated behavior that is intended to cause psychological or emotional harm to another person and that takes place online

diffusion of responsibility

tendency for no one in a group to help because the responsibility to help is spread throughout the group

discrimination

negative actions toward individuals as a result of their membership in a particular group

dispositionism

describes a perspective common to personality psychologists, which asserts that our behavior is determined by internal factors, such as personality traits and temperament

empathy

capacity to understand another person’s perspective—to feel what they feel

foot-in-the-door technique

persuasion of one person by another person, encouraging a person to agree to a small favor, or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favor or purchase of a larger item

fundamental attribution error

tendency to overemphasize internal factors as attributions for behavior and underestimate the power of the situation

group polarization

strengthening of the original group attitude after discussing views within the group

groupthink

group members modify their opinions to match what they believe is the group consensus

homophily

tendency for people to form social networks, including friendships, marriage, business relationships, and many other types of relationships, with others who are similar

homophobia

prejudice and discrimination against individuals based solely on their sexual orientation

hostile aggression

aggression motivated by feelings of anger with intent to cause pain

in-group

group that we identify with or see ourselves as belonging to

in-group bias

preference for our own group over other groups

individualistic culture

culture that focuses on individual achievement and autonomy

informational social influence

conformity to a group norm prompted by the belief that the group is competent and has the correct information

instrumental aggression

aggression motivated by achieving a goal and does not necessarily involve intent to cause pain

internal factor

internal attribute of a person, such as personality traits or temperament

just-world hypothesis

ideology common in the United States that people get the outcomes they deserve

justification of effort

theory that people value goals and achievements more when they have put more effort into them

normative social influence

conformity to a group norm to fit in, feel good, and be accepted by the group

obedience

change of behavior to please an authority figure or to avoid aversive consequences

out-group

group that we don’t belong to—one that we view as fundamentally different from us

peripheral route persuasion

one person persuades another person; an indirect route that relies on association of peripheral cues (such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement) to associate positivity with a message

persuasion

process of changing our attitude toward something based on some form of communication

prejudice

negative attitudes and feelings toward individuals based solely on their membership in a particular group

prosocial behavior

voluntary behavior with the intent to help other people

racism

prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based solely on their race

reciprocity

give and take in relationships

romantic love

type of love consisting of intimacy and passion, but no commitment

scapegoating

act of blaming an out-group when the in-group experiences frustration or is blocked from obtaining a goal

script

person’s knowledge about the sequence of events in a specific setting

self-disclosure

sharing personal information in relationships

self-fulfilling prophecy

treating stereotyped group members according to our biased expectations only to have this treatment influence the individual to act according to our stereotypic expectations, thus confirming our stereotypic beliefs

self-serving bias

tendency for individuals to take credit by making dispositional or internal attributions for positive outcomes and situational or external attributions for negative outcomes

sexism

prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based on their sex

situationism

describes a perspective that behavior and actions are determined by the immediate environment and surroundings; a view promoted by social psychologists

social exchange theory

humans act as naïve economists in keeping a tally of the ratio of costs and benefits of forming and maintain a relationship, with the goal to maximize benefits and minimize costs

social loafing

exertion of less effort by a person working in a group because individual performance cannot be evaluated separately from the group, thus causing performance decline on easy tasks

social norm

group’s expectations regarding what is appropriate and acceptable for the thoughts and behavior of its members

social psychology

field of psychology that examines how people impact or affect each other, with particular focus on the power of the situation

social role

socially defined pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group

stanford prison experiment

Stanford University conducted an experiment in a mock prison that demonstrated the power of social roles, social norms, and scripts

stereotype

specific beliefs or assumptions about individuals based solely on their membership in a group, regardless of their individual characteristics

triangular theory of love

model of love based on three components: intimacy, passion, and commitment; several types of love exist, depending on the presence or absence of each of these components