2.2: Rhetorical Appeals

Learning Objectives

1. Define and differentiate among Aristotle's three rhetorical appeals: ethos, pathos, and logos.
2. Analyze persuasive messages to identify how communicators use ethos, pathos, and logos to influence an audience.
3. Develop strategies to effectively incorporate logical (logos), emotional (pathos), and credibility-based (ethos) appeals into your own persuasive communication.

Aristotle's Rhetorical Appeals

Previously, we have discussed how persuasion is all around us, influencing our thoughts and actions. But how does it actually work? How do speakers and writers convince us?

Thousands of years ago, the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle studied this very question. He realized that when people try to persuade us, they generally use three main types of appeals or "proofs" – ways to make us believe them. While we often translate his term, pisteis, as "proofs," it's probably better to think of them as the reasons or causes that make us believe something.

These three powerful appeals, which you'll find woven into almost every persuasive message, are:

• Ethos
• Logos
• Pathos

Pathos: Appealing to Emotion

Pathos is the art of using emotional appeals to influence an audience's opinion within a persuasive message. While emotion itself is universally understood, effective use of pathos often aims to evoke strong feelings like sorrow, anger, joy, or empathy in the hearts and minds of listeners or viewers.

You frequently see pathos employed in public service announcements (PSAs). Many anti-smoking campaigns, for instance, rely heavily on this emotional approach. Consider a particularly memorable video: an elderly man slowly rises from a couch, reaching out to greet his young grandson, who is taking his first wobbly steps towards him, encouraged by his mother. As the old man coaxes the child forward, he begins to fade from view. The child eventually walks right through him, and the mother's voice whispers, "I wish your grandpa could see you now." The powerful implication of the grandfather's death is then reinforced by a voice-over detailing the number of lives lost to cigarette smoke, concluding with the poignant plea, "Be there for the ones you love." This commercial masterfully uses evocative words and images to tap into the viewer's deepest emotions, encouraging them to quit smoking. The ultimate goal is to move the audience so profoundly that those who smoke are motivated to never light up again.

When a communicator (whether an author, speaker, or advertiser) uses pathos, they are attempting to connect with the audience's emotions to encourage agreement with their message. The goal is to make the audience feel something – perhaps anger, pride, joy, sadness, or happiness. As the ASPCA commercials featuring injured puppies and sad-looking kittens, combined with slow, somber music, clearly demonstrate, emotions can be powerfully leveraged to persuade audiences to donate money.

Pathos-based strategies are essentially any techniques that encourage the audience to become more receptive to a topic, an argument, or even the communicator themselves, by forging an emotional bond. Emotions can make us vulnerable, and a skilled communicator can use this vulnerability to present their argument as particularly compelling or urgent.

As you analyze persuasive messages, try to identify moments where the communicator is primarily trying to sway you through emotion. While powerful, excessive reliance on pathos can sometimes signal a lack of strong evidence or an attempt at emotional manipulation. If a message relies only on making you feel sad or angry to convince you, does that truly make for a sound and valid argument? It's an important question to consider.

Examples of Pathos \(\PageIndex{1}\)

• Vivid Descriptions: Using expressive language to describe people, places, or events, helping the audience truly feel or experience those moments.
• Striking Imagery: Employing powerful visuals that make the audience feel as though they are witnessing the events firsthand.
• Personal Stories: Sharing individual narratives that foster connection or empathy between the audience and the person being described.
• Emotionally Charged Vocabulary: Selecting words specifically chosen to guide the audience into a desired emotional state (e.g., words that evoke urgency, hope, fear, or compassion).
• Evoking Specific Responses: Presenting information in a way that triggers emotions like empathy, disgust, connection, or rejection towards the person, group, or event being discussed.

Ethos: Building Trust and Credibility

Imagine it's the first day of class. Your professor walks in, looking disheveled, perhaps yawning, and seems a bit unfocused. How would you immediately perceive them? Would you feel confident that this person truly knows their subject? Probably not! This initial judgment is all about Ethos.

Ethos refers to the credibility, character, and trustworthiness that a speaker, writer, or author establishes with their audience. It's about convincing your audience that you are someone worth listening to. Many different things contribute to ethos, including what a person wears, their tone of voice, their credentials (like degrees or job titles), their experience, their relationship with the audience, and even their body language. Sometimes, knowing who is presenting the information can be just as important as what they are saying.

Think about advertising: Big companies often use famous celebrities to promote products. When you see a popular singer or athlete endorsing a soft drink, their fame is meant to create a positive feeling about the product. The question is, what does their fame actually tell you about the drink itself? Often, it's their connection with the audience – their likability – that acts as the selling point, rather than their actual expertise on the product.

On the other hand, consider commercials for medical products or even chewing gum that claim "four out of five doctors/dentists recommend this product." Sometimes, they even show someone in a white lab coat. If the person truly is a medical professional, this can be a strong example of ethos, as their expertise directly relates to the product. However, if a famous sports figure endorses a car, we might question their actual knowledge of automotive engineering. In this case, the celebrity is used to grab attention, not to genuinely inform the consumer with relevant expertise.

This idea of credibility applies directly to writing as well. If you were reading an article about racial equality that was published by a known extremist group, it should immediately raise a "red flag." You'd likely question the author's bias and trustworthiness. It's always wise to research an author's background to ensure their perspective is fair and unbiased. Similarly, when you're writing formally, your word choice and approach contribute to your ethos. Using appropriate terminology and a respectful tone will make you appear more knowledgeable and trustworthy to your audience. You might adapt your "voice" for different assignments, but your language should always reflect your intent and help build your credibility.

Ethos in persuasion has two main parts: it's about connecting with audience's values and showcasing the communicator's credibility and character.

First, when a communicator uses an ethical appeal, they try to tap into the values and beliefs that are important to their audience. These could be broad values like patriotism, justice, equality, or self-preservation, or more specific social, religious, or philosophical values (like compassion or community). While these can feel similar to emotions, they operate on a shared, societal level. When a communicator connects their argument to values that resonate deeply with the audience, the audience feels that the argument is "right" or morally sound. It's like the communicator is saying, "My argument is built on the values that matter to you, so you should accept it." This side of ethos focuses on the audience's moral compass and what they hold dear.

Second, this idea of what's "right" also ties into the communicator themselves. Ethos centered on the communicator focuses on two qualities: credibility and character.

• Credibility is about the speaker's or author's knowledge and expertise on the topic. For instance, if you're learning about Einstein's Theory of Relativity, you'd trust a physics professor more than a distant cousin who took two science classes decades ago. To build credibility, communicators might highlight their experience or authority in the subject. Sometimes, an audience already knows a communicator is credible, so no extra effort is needed.
• Character is different from credibility; it involves a person's personal history, integrity, and personality traits. Someone can be highly knowledgeable (credible) but lack good character, or vice-versa. In politics, for example, the most experienced candidates sometimes lose because voters don't trust their character. Successful politicians often work hard to show they are leaders who genuinely care about voters' interests. The candidate who convinces voters that they possess trustworthy character is more likely to win.

Ultimately, ethos boils down to trust. How can a communicator earn the audience's trust so that they will accept the argument? This involves appearing as a credible expert and embodying the character traits that the audience values.

As you read or listen to any message, always consider the communicator's credibility and character regarding the subject. For example, if an author writing about abortion mentions that she has had one, this is an ethical move. She is building credibility through personal experience and a first-person narrative, aiming to make the audience trust her perspective more readily. When you analyze a persuasive message, it's your job to identify these kinds of rhetorical strategies and explain how they work.

Examples of Ethos \(\PageIndex{2}\)

• Refer, directly or indirectly, to the values that are important to their audience.
• Use language, phrasing, imagery, or styles that resonate with people who hold those values, making them feel understood and more inclined to trust.
• Mention their experience or authority on the topic to demonstrate their expertise.
• Highlight their own positive character traits or make an effort to build that perception within the message.

Logos

When it comes to persuasion, Logos is all about using logic, facts, and reason to convince your audience. It's the "brainy" side of persuasion – calm, objective, and focused on solid evidence.

For example, imagine someone arguing, "Every time I wear my lucky socks, my favorite team wins, so if I wear them for the next game, they're guaranteed to win!" This statement uses faulty logic based on a mistaken assumption of cause and effect. While the socks might be "lucky" in someone's mind, there's no actual logical connection or evidence that they influence a sports team's performance. For an argument to be persuasive through logos, it needs to be sound and supported by verifiable facts or clear reasoning.

When a communicator uses logos, they are appealing to their audience's intelligence through careful structure and objective evidence. Objective evidence is information that can be verified by facts, statistics, or multiple reliable sources, often confirmed by experts in the field.

Consider Dr. Smith trying to convince her students to complete their homework. She might explain that she understands they're busy (showing fairness), but then clearly state that homework helps improve test grades (a logical explanation). To strengthen her argument, she could share statistics showing how many students who completed homework passed their tests versus how many who didn't fail. This is a clear example of using logos to persuade through facts and reason.

When you encounter a persuasive message, always ask yourself: "Is the evidence presented logical, relevant, and well-supported?" Don't just accept facts at face value; consider their source and how they connect to the main argument. A strong logos appeal provides clear, rational reasons for you to accept a claim, guiding your understanding rather than solely relying on emotions or trust. If an argument seems to make sense but lacks solid data or contains obvious leaps in logic, it might be trying to appear logical without actually being so.

Examples of Logos\(\PageIndex{3}\)

• Comparison: Showing how one thing is similar to another to support your point. (Just be sure the two things are truly comparable in important ways!)
• Cause/Effect Thinking: Arguing that one event or action directly leads to another. For instance, "If you exercise regularly (cause), you will feel healthier (effect)."
• Deductive Reasoning: Starting with a general truth or principle and applying it to a specific situation to reach a conclusion.
• Inductive Reasoning: Taking several specific observations or examples and using them to form a broader, general conclusion.
• Analogical Reasoning: Drawing parallels between two seemingly different things to explain a concept or make a point.
• Exemplification: Using many examples or a variety of evidence to strongly support a single point.
• Elaboration: Not just stating a fact, but explaining why that fact is important or relevant to your argument.
• Coherent Thought: Keeping your arguments well-organized, logical, and easy to follow, avoiding repetition or jumping between ideas.

Timing, as they sometimes say, is everything. Rhetoric is about finding the best "available means" of persuasion "at any given moment" or "in any given case." Past, present, and future ("forensic," "epideictic," and "demonstrative" as the video, below, on labels them) are definitely part of the picture here, as well.

Video \(\PageIndex{1}\)

Video: How to use rhetoric to get what you want by Camille A. Langston. All Rights Reserved. Standard YouTube license.

How the Appeals Work Together to Persuade

You've learned about Logos (appealing to logic), Pathos (appealing to emotion), and Ethos (appealing to credibility). Now, let's see how these three powerful tools work together in a speech. When you're preparing to speak, it's easy to focus mostly on the facts and logic (Logos) – making sure your information is correct and well-organized. But a truly effective speech needs more! Think about it:

Ethos builds trust. Your audience needs to believe you are knowledgeable and trustworthy. You show this through good research and by presenting yourself confidently.
Pathos connects emotionally. People are often moved by stories, vivid descriptions, or appeals to their values. This helps them open up to your message.
Logos provides the substance. You give them the solid facts and reasoning to support your points.
While we talk about them separately, these three appeals are actually inseparable in a good speech. For example, solid facts (Logos) can become even more impactful when delivered with passion (Pathos) by a speaker who seems trustworthy (Ethos).

The secret to a persuasive speech is to blend all three appeals. Don't rely too heavily on just one. A speech that only has facts might be boring. One that's only emotional might seem manipulative. And one that lacks credibility won't be believed. By using Ethos, Pathos, and Logos together, you create a powerful and well-rounded message that truly connects with your audience and moves them to your point of view.

Using Rhetorical Appeals in Your Own Speeches

Identifying these appeals is a valuable skill to learn; understanding how to use these appeals in your persuasive speaking can prove to be an even more powerful ability to develop. To begin, several ways to appeal to logic exist. Consider the structure and quality of your argument. Let's look at how to build strong appeals in your presentations.

Creating Emotional Appeals (Pathos)

To connect with your audience on an emotional level, consider these suggestions:

• Share compelling stories that resonate with your audience's feelings.
• Use surprising or powerful statistics that are likely to trigger a specific emotion.
• Show empathy and understanding for different perspectives, even if they're opposing yours.
• Use humor when it's appropriate and fits the tone of your speech.

While using emotions is powerful, be careful not to rely on faulty emotional appeals. For instance, using overly dramatic words that aren't supported by facts can feel manipulative and weaken your message.

Establishing Credibility (Ethos)

To make your speech more effective, remember what a digital strategist and rhetorician, Daniel T. Richards, once said : "Your argument could be sound. It could even be emotionally compelling. But if your audience doesn't trust you, if they don't think you have their interest at heart, it won't matter." This highlights how crucial Ethos is, enhancing both your logical and emotional appeals.

To show your audience that you are a credible and trustworthy speaker, try these techniques:

• Refer to your relevant work or life experience that connects to your topic.
• Mention any relevant awards, certificates, or degrees you hold.
• Provide evidence from sources that are reliable and current.
• Carefully prepare and rehearse your speech, and perhaps even get feedback from others, to ensure you sound polished and confident.

Building Logical Appeals (Logos)

Finally, to make your speech sound logical and reasonable. Always think about the core of your argument:

• Does your conclusion make sense based on what you've said before?
• Can your audience easily follow your line of thinking from one point to the next?
• Do you offer enough proof to truly convince your audience?

To strengthen the logic in your speech, try these tips:

• Share facts and figures that are relevant.
• Cite up-to-date and reliable statistics.
• Provide clear examples to illustrate your points.
• Acknowledge and address opposing viewpoints fairly.
• Use visuals like charts or graphs to present data clearly.

Exercises

1. The chapter discusses that while pathos can be powerful, relying on it excessively can lead to manipulation. Conversely, a message that is only logos might be dry, and a message without ethos might not be trusted. Think of a real-world persuasive scenario (e.g., advocating for a local policy change, convincing a group to support a charity, selling a new product). Briefly outline how you would intentionally blend all three rhetorical appeals (ethos, pathos, and logos) to create a persuasive message that is both effective and ethically responsible. Provide a specific example for each appeal in your hypothetical scenario.
2. Find a short persuasive message (e.g., a commercial, a political social media post, a short public service announcement, or a section from a speech). Identify: Pinpoint specific elements within the message that attempt to establish ethos (credibility/character), evoke pathos (emotion), and appeal to logos (logic/reason). Provide direct examples or descriptions. Evaluate: In your opinion, which appeal is most dominant in this message, and why? Do you believe the appeals are used effectively and ethically? Explain your reasoning, considering whether any appeal feels manipulative or unsupported.

Image Attributions

Alvaro Marques Hijazo, Aristotle. CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

Adapted from:

Kashyap, A., & Dyquisto, E. (2025, March 19). The art of rhetoric. In Writing, Reading and College Success: A First‑Year Composition Course for All Learners. City College of San Francisco via LibreTexts.