Lawrence Kohlberg (1963) built on the work of Piaget and was interested in finding out how our moral reasoning changes as we get older. He wanted to find out how people decide what is right and what is wrong (note: It could be argued that this is an antiquated theory that has become limited in its scope based by today's standards. However, it remains an important theory to understand as it set a foundation for other Lifespan Psychology theories that have since followed). In order to explore this area, Kohlberg read a story containing a "moral dilemma" to a group of children of different age groups. In the story, a man is trying to obtain an expensive drug that his wife needs in order to treat her cancer. The man has no money and no one will loan him the money he requires. He begs the pharmacist to reduce the price, but the pharmacist refuses. So, the man decides to break into the pharmacy to steal the drug. Then, Kohlberg asked the children to decide whether the man was right or wrong in his choice. Kohlberg was not interested in whether they said the man was right or wrong, he was interested in finding out how they arrived at such a decision. He wanted to know what they thought made something right or wrong.
Pre-conventional Moral Development
The youngest subjects seemed to answer based on what would happen to the man as a result of the act. For example, they might say the man should not break into the pharmacy because the pharmacist might find him and beat him (Oh my!). Or they might say that the man should break in and steal the drug and his wife will give him a big kiss. Right or wrong, both decisions were based on what would physically happen to the man as a result of the act. This is a self-centered approach to moral decision-making. He called this most superficial understanding of right and wrong pre-conventional moral development.
Conventional Moral Development
Middle childhood kids seemed to base their answers on what other people would think of the man as a result of his act. For instance, they might say he should break into the store, and then everyone would think he was a good husband. Or, he shouldn’t because it is against the law. In either case, right and wrong is determined by what other people think. A good decision is one that gains the approval of others or one that complies with the law. He called this conventional moral development.
Post-conventional Moral Development
Older children were the only ones to appreciate the fact that this story has different levels of right and wrong. Right and wrong are based on social contracts established for the good of everyone or on universal principles of right and wrong that transcend the self and social convention. For example, the man should break into the store because, even if it is against the law, the wife needs the drug and her life is more important than the consequences the man might face for breaking the law. Or, the man should not violate the principle of the right of property because this rule is essential for social order. In either case, the person’s judgment goes beyond what happens to the self. It is based on a concern for others; for society as a whole or for an ethical standard rather than a legal standard. This level is called post-conventional moral development because it goes beyond convention or what other people think to a higher, universal ethical principle of conduct that may or may not be reflected in the law. Notice that such thinking requires being able to think abstractly. Often this is not accomplished until a person reaches adolescence or adulthood.
Figure 6.4.1: In Kohlberg's final stage, what is right and wrong is no longer determined by external forces. (Unsplash license; Clay Banks via Unsplash)
Consider your own decision-making processes. What guides your decisions? Are you primarily concerned with your personal well-being? Do you make choices based on what other people will think about your decision? Or are you guided by other principles? To what extent is this approach guided by your culture?
Theories of Intelligence
Intelligence tests and psychological definitions of intelligence have been heavily criticized since the 1970s for being biased in favor of White, middle-class respondents and for being inadequate tools for measuring non-academic types of intelligence or talent. Intelligence changes with experience and intelligence quotients or scores do not reflect that ability to change. What is considered "smart" varies culturally, as well and most intelligence tests do not take this variation into account. For example, in the West, being "smart" is associated with being quick. A person who answers a question the fastest is seen as the smartest. But in some cultures, being smart is associated with considering an idea thoroughly before giving an answer. A well-thought out, contemplative answer is then, the best answer.
Multiple Intelligences
The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, advanced by Howard Gardner, argues that there are multiple types of intelligence in people. In fact, Gardner (1998, 1999, 2001) suggests that there are at least nine domains of intelligence. The first three are skills that are measured by IQ tests:
- Logical-mathematical: the ability to solve mathematical problems; problems of logic, numerical patterns.
- Linguistic: vocabulary, reading comprehension, function of language.
- Spatial: visual accuracy, ability to read maps, understand space and distance.
The next six represent skills that are not measured in standard IQ tests but are talents or abilities that can also be important for success in a variety of fields: These are:
- Musical: ability to understand patterns in music, hear pitches, recognize rhythms and melodies.
- Bodily-kinesthetic: motor coordination, grace of movement, agility, strength.
- Naturalistic: knowledge of plants, animals, minerals, climate, weather.
- Interpersonal: understand the emotion, mood, motivation of others; able to communicate effectively.
- Intrapersonal: understanding of the self, mood, motivation, temperament, realistic knowledge of strengths, weaknesses.
- Existential: concern about and understanding of life’s larger questions, meaning of life, or spiritual matters.
Gardner contends that these are also forms of intelligence. A high IQ does not always ensure success in life or necessarily indicate that a person has common sense, good interpersonal skills or other abilities important for success.
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Another alternative view of intelligence is presented by Howard Sternberg (1997; 1999). Sternberg offers three types of intelligences. He described his frustration as a committee member charged with selecting graduate students for a program in psychology. He was concerned that there was too much emphasis placed on aptitude test scores and believed that there were other, less easily measured, qualities necessary for success in a graduate program and in the world of work. Aptitude test scores indicate the first type of intelligence-academic or analytic.
- Componential (academic or analytic skills): includes the ability to solve problems of logic, verbal comprehension, vocabulary, and spatial abilities.
Sternberg noted that students who have high academic abilities may still not have what is required to be a successful graduate student or a competent professional. To do well as a graduate student, he noted, the person needs to be creative.
- Experiential (creativity): the ability to apply newly found skills to novel situations.
A potential graduate student might be strong academically and have creative ideas, but still be lacking in the social skills required to work effectively with others or to practice good judgment in a variety of situations.
- Practical (contextual skills): the ability to use common sense and to know what is called for in a situation.
This type of intelligence helps a person know when problems need to be solved. Practical intelligence can help a person know how to conduct themselves in any given situation or what to wear for job interviews, when to get out of problematic relationships, how to get along with others at work, and when to make changes to reduce stress as some examples.
